When Data Speak Back: Resolving Source Conflict in Apache Residential and Fire-Making Behavior

Contradictions exist among primary sources as to the locations of historical Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache encampments. Modern elders state that residential sites were situated in low settings at the base of elevated landforms, whereas textual sources and archaeology suggest otherwise for much of the historic period and before. This contradiction is resolved when it is realized that Chiricahua cultural-specialist knowledge relating to key aspects of landscape use pertains to the last 25?years before Geronimo’s final surrender and removal to the east. This was a time of substantial and increased pressure from the American military using more effective tactics following the Civil War. These tactics included cooperation with Mexico, use of Apache scouts, deeper penetration of the mountains, and more persistent pursuit. Land claims interviews of Chiricahua informants from the 1950s mention this shift from high to low and the reason for it. This case study illustrates the importance of (a) seriating source material rather than assuming long-term continuity, (b) subjecting all sources, including elder knowledge, to standard forms of criticism, and (c) analyzing differences between informant factions.