Identification of PbO (BaO) faience from an early and middle Warring States period cemetery at Zhaitouhe,northern Shaanxi,China

Low‐temperature vitreous materials fluxed with lead (and barium) appeared in the early Warring States period (c.fifth century bce ) in ancient China. A range of lead vitreous products fluxed with the same agent, including faience/glass beads, glazed pottery and Chinese blue (purple) pigment, were developed subsequently. This study carries out scientific analysis of six vitreous beads unearthed from the Zhaitouhe cemetery site in northern Shaanxi dating to the early and middle Warring States period to investigate their chemical composition, microstructure and coloration. The lead (and barium) vitreous beads identified here are some of the earliest lead vitreous materials discovered in China so far, and therefore important for the study of the development of lead vitreous technologies in ancient China. This paper also points out that it is meaningful to evaluate the lead glass, glazed pottery and barium copper silicate pigments as a whole technological assemblage given their close relationships.