War widows and revenge in Restoration England

This article examines petitions submitted by royalist widows to the House of Lords during the first few months of the Restoration. The husbands of these women had been tried and executed for treason during the 1640s and 1650s for their perceived loyalty to the royalist cause, prompting their spouses to demand retribution against their judges and jurors. As the Convention Parliament deliberated over the Act of Indemnity during the summer of 1660, these aggrieved widows were presented with an opportunity to ensure that the men they held responsible for their husband’s deaths were brought to account. By assessing the petitioning strategies adopted by these women and the government’s responses to their demands, the article throws light on a group of war widows who have received little scholarly attention. It is argued that whilst these women were largely unsuccessful, their efforts represent a significant aspect of female activism during the seventeenth century.     

论日欧首脑外交

首脑外交是第二次世界大战以来国家间交往的一种频繁使用的外交形式,随着国际格局多极化与世界经济全球化的发展,首脑外交也日益突显出其独特作用,并且为当今大多数国家的政治首脑所接受,冷战约束后,首脑外交更加趋向于公开化,制度化,全球化,在当今国际新秩序的构建过程中,资本主义世界的铁三角同盟（日美欧战略三角）也面临着战略性的结构调整,向着全球性战略伙伴关系发展,日本与欧盟及其成员国的关键日益密切,日欧间首脑的频繁互访无疑发挥了重大的作用。     

Identifying locals, migrants, and captives in the Wari Heartland: A bioarchaeological and biogeochemical study of human remains from Conchopata, Peru

The site of Conchopata in the central Peruvian Andes was the secondary center in the heartland of the Wari Empire (AD 600–1000), and in this study we examine whether this urban locale was populated by locals, voluntary migrants from distant regions, and/or captives who were forcibly brought to Conchopata. We examine radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from 72 dental enamel and bone samples representing 31 formal burials and 18 human trophy heads to distinguish between locals and non-locals, and we examine skeletal and archaeological data to establish whether non-local persons were voluntary migrants or captives. We also describe a new, straightforward technique in the evaluation of radiogenic strontium isotope ratios to assist in detecting non-locals when large datasets are available.Results show that natal Conchopata inhabitants should exhibit radiogenic strontium isotope ratios that range from ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70548 to ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70610. Thus, among the 31 burials, 29 exhibit local values, suggesting that Conchopata was not a cosmopolitan center to which numerous foreigners migrated; rather, it was populated by local peoples, likely the descendants of the preceding Huarpa culture. The two individuals with non-local radiogenic strontium isotope ratios are an infant and a 17–22 years old female. The archaeological context suggests that the female may have been taken captive for subsequent sacrifice, as she was interred in front of the ritual D-shaped structure in which decapitated human heads (trophy heads) and sacrificed camelids were deposited. Among the 18 trophy heads sampled, 14 have non-local values, confirming previous studies of smaller samples that suggested that Wari warriors travelled to other locales and took captives—both adults and children—for subsequent transformation into trophy heads. Additional analyses of bone-tooth pairs from a subsample (12 burials and six trophy heads) shows that the burial group was much more sedentary (homogenous radiogenic strontium isotope ratios in bones and teeth) and the trophy head individuals were much more mobile (heterogenous radiogenic strontium isotope ratios in bones and teeth). Overall, the multiple lines of evidence support the notion that the Wari Empire occasionally used militaristic means, combined with elaborate ritualism, to subjugate other populations, a tactic that may have helped Wari establish and maintain control in particular regions in the Andes.     

古栉拾零

我国古代的栉,既是一种重要的首服饰物,又是一种必备的梳理用具。作为人类精神创造和物质创造的结晶,栉以其独特的方式,不仅记录了社会生活状态的变化,同时也记录了人们审美理念的变化,在人类文化发展史上占有相当重要的地位。可是,由于人们对栉的使用习以为常,乃至于忽视了它们的存在价值。本文运用对比分析的方法,辨识出"不为人识"、"不明全貌"、"不辨其形"的三例古栉,并通过对相关遗存的分析,指出了这些古栉不仅在标识使用者身份方面具有重要的作用,而且在反映不同地区、不同人群的精神面貌方面同样具有不可忽视的作用。     

清代寡妇立嗣问题探析

In the Qing Dynasty, widows who did not remarry could become the right subject of adopting an heir. There were two main types, adoption by order and adoption by affection. Sometimes an heir with a different surname could also be adopted. Some relatively economic compensation actions were taken in the adoption. The widows’ right of adoption was restricted by such factors as patriarchy, clan, feudal ethical codes and conventions. However, the widows could appropriately use law to protect their rights and interests. Meanwhile, when the magistrates judged cases about adoption, they were usually apt to support the widows’ requests so as to protect the rights and interests of social vulnerable group with fully applying the right of discretion. Translated by Chen Cheng from Shixue Yuekan 史学月刊 (Journal of Historical Science), 2007, (6): 34–42     

清代寡妇立嗣问题探析

清代,寡妇在守志的情况下,可以成为立嗣权利的主体。其立嗣方式主要有应继和爱继两种,有时也有异姓继承情况发生。寡妇在立嗣时多伴有相关的经济补偿行为。清代的寡妇立嗣权常受到父家长权及宗族制度和传统礼法习惯的制约,是不完整的。但清代寡妇已能运用法律手段来适当地保护自己的权利,地方官在审理此类案件时,也多倾向于支持寡妇的主张,充分运用自由裁量权以保护弱势者的权益。     

Land as fictitious commodity: the continuing evolution of women's land rights in Uganda

In sub-Saharan Africa, colonial influences have altered traditional practices as a way to manage that which Polanyi labeled as ‘fictitious commodities’ of land, labor, and money. Land has now become a highly marketable commodity and an intrinsic part of the global economy. Over the past century, Uganda's land rights have evolved from communal rights to that of male-dominated, individual ownership practices that have excluded women. Despite constitutional provisions, which confer title of both a deceased husband's property rights and equal rights to property within a marriage to a wife, postcolonial patriarchal tradition prevails. This article examines historical changes in land rights in Uganda and discusses the impact of shifts in land rights from communal ownership to individual tenure, altering power structures and attempting to create marketable land title. The Ugandan women's movement's opposition to policies and implementation of laws that exclude women has been unable to facilitate the required changes in unbiased access to land rights, despite apparent victories in revisions to the letter of the law. Situated within contemporary interpretations of tradition and pressures of market demand, this article shows that women's access to landownership and use are restricted by misinterpretation of traditional law and a lack of enforcement of contemporary legal rights. To illustrate the impact of a lack of access to land, this article examines an empirical case study of widowed subsistence farmers in southern Uganda. Women in Uganda continue to lose ground, quite literally, decreasing the possibility of gender equity in terms of land.     

清代中期婚姻行为分析——立足于1781—1791年的考察

本文主要依据中国第一历史档案馆所藏乾隆朝刑科题本婚姻家庭类档案中收集的个案资料 ,对 18世纪中后期中国的婚姻行为包括初婚年龄、离婚表现和再婚状况做了初步分析。研究结论表明 ,在当时社会 ,女性早婚是比较普遍的现象 ,男性中早婚和晚婚两种现象并存 ;离婚是人们尽可能避免的 ,离婚中 ,丈夫休妻和嫁卖妻子为主流 ;丧偶妇女再婚和守节并存 ,中青年丧偶妇女再婚比例较高 ,但守节也有一定比例     

唐代县令任期变动问题研究

任期制是唐代对县令进行管理的重要措施。就制度规定而言,唐代县令任期在三年、四年或五年间不断徘徊,而实际迁转中的任期往往少于制度规定的时间。其原因既有唐虞时期"三载考绩"制的影响,也有唐代统治者选拔人才措施及地域条件方面的因素。县令任期过短对唐代基层社会产生了消极影响。     

近代江南乡村妇女的"财产权"

在近代江南乡村,尽管妇女对家庭生计有着重要的贡献,但家产的男系传承原则使她们基本上没有财产权可言。在家庭结构健全的场合,妇女根本就无权获得家产份额。寡妇相对而言有一定的家产处置权,但那仅仅是代儿孙监管而已,在寡妇无子的情况下,还要将家产捐给族里。出嫁女获赠“奁田”,娘家有随时收回的权利。因此,妇女的所谓“财产权”是残缺的,在家族共财制的农业社会的历史场境中,这是很容易解释的。