Late Bronze Age Copper Smelting Slags from Luserna (Trentino,Italy): Interpretation of the Metallurgical Process

In the Late Bronze Age, the extractive metallurgy of copper in north‐eastern Italy achieved a peak of technological efficiency and mass production, as evidenced by the substantial number of metallurgical sites and the large volume of slags resulting from smelting activities. In order to define the technological features of the Late Bronze Age metallurgical process, more than 20 slags from the smelting site of Luserna (Trentino, Italy) were fully analysed by means of optical microscopy, X‐ray powder diffraction, X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy. Three different slag types were identified based on mineralogical and chemico‐physical parameters, each being interpreted as the product of distinct metallurgical steps. A Cu‐smelting model is proposed accordingly.     

The history of silver refining in New Spain, 16c to 18c: back to the basics

The refining of silver ores in New Spain was defined by the chemical nature of the silver ore. Argentiferous galena (lead sulphide) could only be refined by smelting (36% silver produced), irrespective of silver content, and amalgamation (64%) could only be applied to the silver sulphide ores. Both processes were transferred from Europe, but amalgamation was transformed by local expertise from a recipe of limited application to an industrial-scale solution for refining sulphidic silver ores. Its implementation shaped the environmental history of colonial silver refining in the New World. Mercury was consumed mainly through its chemical conversion into calomel, with minimal emissions of volatile mercury. Waste silt and liquid mercury in the soil and waterways were its main legacy. Smelting created a greater impact on the environment of New Spain, via lead in lead fumes as the main heavy metal issued to the air, and its depletion of woodlands. This article argues that a technical analysis of period refining practices in New Spain reorients our understanding of Spain’s imperial relations with its New World colonies, of the role of local knowledge in a global economy of silver production, and of environmental issues in colonial history. It thus speaks to the problem of unpacking the complex web of relations that composed early European imperialism, in which were enmeshed commodities such as silver, cotton and sugar.     

Khirbat al‐Mana‘iyya: an early Islamic‐period copper‐smelting site in south‐eastern Wadi ‘Araba,Jordan

Recent excavations in south‐eastern Wadi ‘Araba in Jordan have revealed the first early Islamic‐period copper‐smelting site known in the eastern side of the valley, which extends south of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of ‘Aqaba. Five test pits were excavated in 2012 at Khirbat al–Mana‘iyya, a prominent copper‐smelting camp in south‐eastern Wadi ‘Araba, Jordan. The results of these excavations demonstrate that the site was primarily active in the seventh–ninth century AD. Its distance from the copper sources of south‐west ‘Araba suggests that its location was chosen based on proximity to wood and water resources, rather than copper ore deposits. The discovery that the site dates to the early Islamic period has implications for previous and future work in south‐east ‘Araba. In particular, it challenges the common—until now—view of the region as virtually devoid of settlement during this period.     

The mineral wealth of ancient Arabia and its use I: Copper mining and smelting at Feinan and Timna – comparison and evaluation of techniques, production, and strategies

Near Eastern fieldwork in mining archaeology and archaeometallurgy began at Timna (Israel) in the 1960s and 1970s and continued in Feinan (Jordan) in the 1980s and 1990s. For the first time, Bronze Age copper mines were excavated and cleared and importance was given to the slag recovered. At both sites copper was produced for over 5000 years, from the Chalcolithic to the Mamluk periods. Although the broad outlines of technical development can be traced, much remains to be learned in future studies.     

GIS在北京延庆大庄科辽代冶铁遗址群景观考古研究中的初步应用

以北京延庆县大庄科乡冶铁遗址群为例,对空间结构及其与资源、环境间的关系通过GIS工具进行分析。根据对冶炼活动有显著关系的影响因子,建立遗址分布之间的定量关系,进而模拟小区域范围内的遗址预测。研究发现,该区冶铁遗址群对地理位置中的坡度和高程因素展现出较强的依赖性,主要表现为遗址的坡度(7°以下)和高程(650m以下)数值均相对较小;遗址与水系间联系明显,冶铁遗址主要集中在河流交汇处,方便冶炼过程及相关活动水源的供应;而随着冶炉容积(即冶铁产量)的增加,小范围内的冶铁遗址选择,并未以铁矿资源距离就近为最佳选取原则,表明了人类生产活动中对资源的依赖程度有所减低。     

Abstracts

ABSTRACT

The celestial universe and the mode of action of YHWH are sometimes depicted by metallurgy. This figuration is generally understood as a picturesque representation devoid of theological significance, introduced only for describing the infinite powers of the god of Israel using the extreme physical conditions characterizing metallurgy. This explanation is however contested by: (i) the many allusions to metallurgy encountered in Biblical theology, (ii) the detailed mention, in the divine context, of all the stages of metal production: mining, ore roasting, smelting, metal purification and even of furnace re-melting, (iii) the representation of the firmament and the earth as two giant pieces of metal, (iv) the vision of the holy domain of YHWH as a giant celestial furnace. These features attest the existence of a substantial metallurgical component in Biblical theology. Furthermore, the strong bias towards copper metallurgy suggests that these representations were anchored in Bronze Age metallurgical traditions. It is concluded that Israelite theology encompasses an important metallurgical component inherited from the pre-Israelite cult of YHWH.     

炉渣分析揭示古代炼铜技术

对古代炼铜工艺、熔炼过程及其炉渣进行了分类,建立了以铜和硫的赋存状态与相对含量（Cu／S）鉴别炉渣种类,进而结合其它遗迹遗物来揭示古代炼铜技术的研究方法。     

斯里兰卡的冶铁考古

介绍了斯里兰卡20世纪80年代以来冶铁考古研究所取得的成就。古代斯里兰卡的铁产品主要是块炼铁和高碳钢,冶铁技术主要有阿腊口腊瓦瓦的自然通风竖炉和以季风为鼓风动力的撒马纳腊瓦瓦开放性矮炉两种,可能与缅甸的自然通风竖炉、日本的踏踏拉以及西非的多哥兰地区抽风式竖炉存在某些历史联系。     

The Material Nature of the Radiance of YHWH and its Theological Implications

Abstract

Kābôd-YHWH is a technical term designating the radiance of the god of Israel. Such a phenomenon is specifically identified in the Bible with three physical realities: volcanic lava, solar activity and molten metal. The antique representation of the sun as molten metal, and the volcanic symbolism of the furnace reveal that these three expressions of kābôd-YHWH are interrelated. Among them, it appears here that kābôd-YHWH refers first of all to molten metal. This introduces a fundamental difference between radiance, specifically related to YHWH through molten metal, and brilliance (and by extension glory, wealth, strength and vitality) of gods and mortals derived from properties of solid state metals. Beyond the status and powers of supreme deity conferred by this metallurgical radiance, identification of kābôd-YHWH as shapeless molten metal also clarifies the origin of one of the most singular characteristic of ancient Yahwism: the strict interdiction of figuration of the god.     

Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe

The Royal City of Meroe, ca. 200?km north of Khartoum in the modern-day Republic of the Sudan, was an ancient capital of the Kingdom of Kush. From the 3rd century b.c. to the 4th century a.d., Kushite rulers controlled significant territory from the banks of the Nile at Meroe, in part through their ability to ensure the production of significant quantities of iron. The extensive archaeological remains of Meroitic iron production have been investigated over decades, and recently a series of experimental iron smelts in a replica Meroitic furnace has shed new light on the archaeometallurgical evidence. The data generated during the smelting campaigns has provided an understanding of the type of iron ore used, the construction and operating parameters of the furnace, and the workshop space created by the ancient iron smelters during the later and post-Meroitic times.