An overview of bitumen trade in the Near East from the Neolithic (c.8000 BC) to the early Islamic period

The aim of the paper is to summarise the present state of knowledge concerning bitumen trade in the Near East from the Palaeolithic (70,000 BP) to the Early Islamic period. During the Palaeolithic and Early Neolithic period, bitumen utilisation was mostly concentrated in settlements close to oil seeps. From the Ubaid 3 period, bitumen from the Mosul area became more important and was traded as far as the southern Persian Gulf. The Uruk period is a turning point for Mesopotamian history as settlements evolved into city‐states. These cities had a great need for raw materials, and this marks the beginning of large‐scale exploitation of Hit bitumen. This bitumen was traded at settlements along the Euphrates, where a large trade network was established. Hit bitumen entered the Persian Gulf at the turn of the second millennium (Dilmun period). Bitumen from Iraq (Mosul and Hit) became predominantly used in most settlements along the southern coast of the Gulf. During this period Iranian bitumen was also exported and this supply tended to increase, especially during the Partho‐Sasanian period. Dead Sea bitumen had its own exchange network, which was concentrated across present‐day Israel and Egypt where it was extensively used for mummification.     

越王勾践剑菱形纹饰技术再讨论——与董亚巍、周卫荣、王昌燧先生商榷兼谈科技考古方法问题

本文简介了已完成科学检测与模拟试验的东周青铜剑菱形暗格纹的成分、组织与形成工艺,认为金属膏剂涂层加热扩散工艺是东周时期唯一的、完全可能实现的、使青铜表面富锡和细晶化的表面装饰工艺;认为菱形纹饰呈黑色是特定埋藏条件下形成的;解释了越王勾践剑未见铭文错金的原因。并就此与董亚巍、周卫荣、王昌燧等先生进行商榷。     

髹漆丝织物的水解老化性能研究

髹漆丝织物水解老化性能的测试研究,旨在了解髹漆丝织品抗老化的能力,为出土髹漆丝织品的起取、保存和展示提供科学的依据.以精制纯漆和加入15%桐油的桐油漆分别对丝织物进行髹涂整理,并对整理后的试样进行加速碱性水解老化处理.测试表明,纯漆试样和桐油漆试样的强度和伸长性能下降迅速.老化初期与丝绸降幅相近,随着老化延续,降幅大于丝绸,桐油漆试样降幅最大.漆膜在碱性水解老化中发生开裂,对蚕丝没有保护和加固作用.桐油漆膜受碱液损伤尤为严重.老化导致蚕丝结晶度下降,脆化的漆膜和老化蚕丝结合,强度和伸长性反而不如老化丝绸.检测表明,髹涂纯生漆和桐油漆的丝织物耐碱性水解老化的能力均很差,逊于未髹漆的丝织物.相比之下,桐油漆试样尤其差.     

古陶瓷修复仿釉涂料的研究

古陶瓷修复是一门综合多种学科的传统技艺,长期以来因缺乏系统的整理和总结,故发展缓慢,在古陶瓷修复中瓷釉工艺直接关系到修补部位的质感和色泽效果,是极为关键的一道工序。传统上采用的仿釉涂料有虫胶漆、醇酸清漆、硝基漆、丙烯酸漆等。为了提高古陶瓷修复质量,在对现有材料测试和筛选的基础上,结合国内外研究的现状,制定出对丙烯酸涂料进行交联的双组分丙烯酸-聚氨酯复合型仿釉涂料的试验路线。通过对引发剂、流平剂、消泡剂、附着力促进剂等多种助剂进行了分门别类的实验研究,确定了树脂合成的最佳配方为:甲基丙烯酸甲酯40％-50％,丙烯酸1％-2％,甲基丙烯酸丁酯10％-20％,丙烯酸丁酯20％-40％,甲基丙烯酸羟乙酯20％-30％,引发剂533M75为1.5％,溶剂为醋酸丁酯。合成工艺为:将醋酸丁酯加热至回流温度为130-140℃,在3小时内滴加单体混合物,滴完后保温1.5小时,冷却,出料得到丙烯酸树脂。固化剂采用HDI三聚体,比例为树脂:固化剂=3:1,搅拌均匀后可直接涂刷。该仿釉涂料经测定,其耐水性、耐溶剂性和耐紫外老化性等指标均优于传统硝基和纯丙烯酸涂料。     

Metallurgical Characterization of A Coated Roman Iron Coin By Analytical Investigations

A coated Roman iron coin from Villa Loig in Salzburg, Austria was investigated. The coating is a copper alloy consisting of Cu, Pb, Sn, Zn and negligible amounts of Ag, a variant of gunmetal known as ‘leaded red brass’. The numismatic term for such a coin is subferratus (Latin). From an archaeometallurgical point of view, information about the chemical composition, the microstructure and the manufacturing technique are of interest. To achieve these objectives, different analytical techniques and metallographic examinations were applied. Droplet‐shaped iron inclusions were observed in the red brass coating, while at the grain boundaries, inside the iron core, copper and lead were detected (liquid metal embrittlement). The dendritic microstructure of the coating, the spheroidal‐shaped iron inclusions in the coating and the liquid metal embrittlement show that the iron coin was plated by immersing it in a molten copper alloy. The iron core is a low‐carbon steel with slag stringers, both of which are characteristic of a bloomery iron. Deformation twins (Neumann lines) were observed in the microstructure of the iron core and indicate that the coining was performed after the flan was cooled.     

Technical Strategies for Conservation of Earthen Archaeological Architecture

The preservation of earthen architectural heritage is extremely complex due to the diversity of its constituent materials and potentially rapid physical deterioration. Interventions on historic earthen architecture throughout the world have shown very distinct levels of success, but there is no single procedure or combination of conservation procedures that guarantee success. One of the problems is the lack of knowledge about the behaviour of soil as the material component, and its relationships both with other materials, and associated natural and cultural environments. This article analyses some technical considerations that have influenced the preservation of earthen archaeological remains, through critical analysis of the existing bibliographic references from the proceedings of specialized international conferences that have taken place in the last twenty years.     

双墩遗址、侯家寨遗址彩陶与红衣陶制作工艺的初步研究

双墩遗址、侯家寨遗址的彩陶和红衣陶,在制作风格和制作工艺等方面,在一定程度上反映着其文化特征。将双墩和侯家寨等相关遗址的彩陶和红衣陶的制作工艺作比较分析,明确了红彩和红衣的物相,并较为深入地探讨了它们的制作工艺和文化内涵。     

A comparative geochemical study of bituminous boat remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra's al-Jinz (Oman)

This paper presents a geochemical analysis of fragments of bituminous amalgam from H3, As‐Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ‐2, Ra's al‐Jinz (Oman). The fragments bear barnacles on one side and reed impressions on the other, and are thought to have been part of the coating of reed‐bundle boats. The material from H3 dates to between 5300–4900 BC, while that of RJ‐2 dates to 2500–2100 BC. Samples from both sites were geochemically compared to archaeological and ethnographic material from Kosak Shamali (northern Syria, c.5000–4400 BC), RH‐5 (Oman, 4400–3500 BC) and Baghdad (central Iraq, 1900 AD). The composition of the bituminous amalgams was studied in detail. Rock‐Eval Pyrolysis gave a measure of Total Organic Carbon in the samples, and allowed an initial comparison of the data sets using various parameters. Examination of the proportions of soluble and insoluble organic matter allowed an assessment of the quantity of vegetal matter added to the bitumen to make the bituminous amalgam. The composition of the Ra's al‐Jinz material was studied using X‐Ray Diffraction analysis and thin‐section petrography, in order to assess the proportions of various minerals in the bituminous amalgams. It was concluded that the recipe for the bituminous mixture used to coat reed‐bundle and wooden boats did not differ significantly from that commonly used to make ‘mortar’ for architectural purposes in Mesopotamia. Traces of animal fats or fish oils were not found in the analysed Ra's al‐Jinz material, in contrast to previous hypotheses regarding the composition of the mixture. Comparison of the gross composition of extractable organic matter (the constituents of pure bitumen, soluble in chloroform or dichloromethane) showed the progressive effects of weathering on the samples. The isotopic composition of the bituminous material from H3 and the other sites was then compared to that of bitumen seeps and crude oils from Mesopotamia, Iran and Oman. The most significant result is that the material from As‐Sabiyah originated in Kuwait, at a surface seep at Burgan, while the material from Ra's al‐Jinz had a source in northern Mesopotamia.     

双墩遗址黑陶渗炭工艺初探

双墩遗址是淮河流域新石器时代中期的一个重要遗址。该遗址出土了相当数量的黑陶,黑陶的制作工艺有多种,为探明双墩遗址黑陶的制作工艺,采用了XRD、喇曼光谱、重烧试验、显微、岩相、SEM和EDS探针等技术,对双墩遗址出土黑陶和局部发黑陶器进行了综合的测试分析。结果指出,陶器整个表层的黑色物质是炭黑。碳元素沿剖面的分布为:内外表层高而中间低,而内外表层0.6mm范围内炭含量的分布不甚均匀,存在明显的高低起伏,表明双墩遗址主要采用渗炭工艺制作黑陶。     

传统西藏壁画表面涂层材质与工艺研究

在前期对甘肃拉卜楞寺壁画表面涂层结构分析基础上,以桐油、亚麻油、胡麻油等干性油为基础材料,试验重现了制作西藏壁画表面涂层的"古法"清漆熬制方法和工艺。同时,提出了一种源于"古法",吸收现代油基树脂漆优点,具有良好材料结构且组成可知、可控、兼容等特点的清漆材料及其工艺("新古法")。研究表征了"古法""新古法"清漆的结构,评价了清漆涂层的颜色、外观、光学性质、艺术效果、耐候性等,并与现代合成的醇酸清漆、氟碳清漆、酚醛清漆等做了对比。结果表明,"古法""新古法"清漆在达到与合成清漆相同化学稳定性、耐候性的同时,具有更好的兼容性和表现效果,可用于今后西藏壁画表面涂层材料的修复。