Characterization and damage assessment of stones used in the Pasargadae World Heritage Site,Achaemenian period

The architectural remains at Pasargadae were built of three different stones classified according to their colors (beige, dark-gray, and green-gray). The stones show different macroscopic features, such as texture and decay patterns. The aim of this study is to identify the composition of the stones and to evaluate the main decay factors through petrographic studies in order to make conservation decisions more compatible. Petrochemical analyses show that the stones are in fact limestones with different features; two of them have a compact texture (beige and dark-gray stones), while the third has a fairly porous structure (green-gray stone). In some beige stone samples, dolomite was identified. Despite the fact that the presence of salt is a possible decay factor, X-ray diffraction analysis did not report any salt. According to SEM observations, the main reasons for decay in dark-gray and green-gray stones are the dissolution of calcite crystals and the swelling of clay minerals. The main decay factor in the beige stone, by contrast, is dissolution induced by microorganism activity. However, a patina formed by lichens on the surface of the beige stone, although aesthetically detrimental, protects it against further decay.     

Antifungal activity of some plant extracts and essential oils against fungi-infested organic archaeological artefacts

The determination of the antifungal activities of nine kinds of powdered plant extracts and five essential oils was studied in vitro against four of the most common fungal species (Aspergillus flavus, A. versicolor, Penicillium sp. and P. purpurogenum), which were isolated from different organic materials from archaeological artefacts such as papyrus and linen. The essential oils showed greater efficacy than the powdered plant extracts, where thyme and lemongrass oils were the most potent. Also, the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum fungicidal concentration of these oils were determined. Furthermore, their chemical components were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. In vivo, studies were performed using biodeteriorated samples for applying treatment, in which the microbiological test revealed that both oils can eradicate both tested fungi completely after exposure time, ranging from two weeks for papyrus samples to 14 weeks for linen. A scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and colorimeter were used to assess the treatment process, leading to the final results, which suggest that the essential oils could be useful sources of fungicidal preparations for the disinfection of biodeteriorated linen and papyrus artefacts. Nevertheless, further studies are strongly recommended to introduce these sources into practical use in preventive conservation.     

A Study of Biodeterioration and Chromatic Alterations of Painted and Gilded Mummy Cartonnage at the Saqqara Museum Storeroom,Egypt

Microbial biofilms have developed on the surfaces and within the painted and gilded layers of mummy cartonnage at the Saqqara museum storeroom in Giza, Egypt. SEM–EDX, XRD and FT–IR–ATR techniques were applied to analyse the coloured and gilded materials, ground layer, textile support and binder used for the cartonnage. Aspergillus niger (24.8%), Penicillium chrysogenum (21.5%) and a novel cartonnage‐biodegrading bacterium, Bacillus sonorensis (23.7%), were the most abundant microbes growing over the cartonnage surface. In addition, Aspergillus tamari (15.4%), A. fumigates (8.1%) and Fusarium solani (6.5%) were identified. The pigments comprised Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite), cinnabar (red), orpiment (yellow) and green pigment made from a mixture of cuprorivaite and orpiment. Gold leaf was used for the gilded layer, calcium carbonate and gypsum comprised the ground layer, gum arabic was the binding medium and the fibre base was a fine linen textile. Microbial colonization tests were performed on aged cartonnage replica samples made from linen and pigments of similar composition to ancient pigments found in the cartonnage. Each sample was inoculated separately with A. niger, P. chrysogenum and B. sonorensis. Yellow orpiment samples were the exception, as no colour change was detected after colonization by the examined micro‐organisms.     

Mold-deteriorated archaeological Egyptian papyri: Biodeteriogens,monitoring the deterioration,and treatment approach

Fungi play a critical role in the deterioration of ancient papyri due to their organic and hygroscopic nature. Fourteen fungal species belonging to five genera—Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Talaromyces, and Ulocladium—were isolated and identified from 20 Egyptian papyrus artifacts located at the Grand Egyptian Museum—Conservation Center (GEM-CC). The biodeterioration mechanism was evaluated by two analyses: cellulase enzyme activity and acid production assay. The isolated fungus P. lanosum showed potent biodeterioration power as it exhibited the highest enzymatic activity and could produce acid as well. Four different analyses were performed to assess the entity of the biodeterioration phenomenon: scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, colorimetry, and pH measurements. The analyses demonstrated considerable changes in surface morphology, chemical structure (mainly represented by oxidation and hydrolysis of infected papyrus samples), darkness of the papyrus samples (ΔE 3.84–7.33), and pH (which dropped to 5.2 in the case of A. niger-infected sample. This article builds a preliminary perception for monitoring the biodeterioration of archaeological papyri and a trial for in vitro treatment to prevent further degradation, which may lead to loss of our valuable artifacts over a prolonged period.     

Physical Characterization,Microstructural Evaluation,and Condition Assessment of Ancient Ahlat Tombstones in the Seljukian Cemetery of Ahlat (Turkey)

A typical Seljukian town of Ahlat, located between the north-western shores of the Lake Van and the Nemrud and Suphan volcanoes of the Eastern Turkey is hosting rich and colorful cultural heritage sites. Among these, famous Seljukian Cemetery is a major archeological district with monumental tombstones (stelae). Excessive deterioration, erosion and lichen colonization can be observed in these cultural artifacts. The main objective of this study is the investigation of stones’ physical characterization and evaluation of the microstructural features. A degradation model was outlined starting with the capillary water uptake from the bottom section and lichen colonization starting from the top and covering these tombstones upto their mid sections. This article provides some information about the historical town of Ahlat and its tombstones. Some physical and microstructural characterization of the gravestones and the results of chemical and physical analysis are also presented along with some recommendations.     

日本高松冢古坟微生物病害及其防治研究概述

高松冢古坟是日本国宝级文化遗产,对其实施的原址保护一度是文物保护界的样板工程和国际典范,然而正是逐渐失控的微生物病害导致古坟解体搬迁至异地保护,复杂的人为介入手段是否有助于墓葬壁画的原址保护,值得更进一步探讨和反思。本研究回顾了高松冢古坟自发掘至今的保护历程,重点总结了侵害古坟石室及壁画微生物类群的调查分析及其防治措施的研究。通过对古坟病害微生物群落特征、环境因素变化及防治干预措施等方面相关文献资料的全面梳理和解读,客观评价了该遗址所取得的研究进展及经验教训,为我国乃至世界其他同类环境中壁画保护提供启示与借鉴。     

Archaeological research on HMS Swift: a British Sloop-of-War lost off Patagonia, Southern Argentina, in 1770

HMS Swift was a British sloop-of-war which sank off the coast of Patagonia, Southern Argentina, in 1770. Since 1997 the Underwater Archaeology Programme of the National Institute of Anthropology has taken charge of the archaeological research conducted at the wreck-site. This article presents an overview of the continuing Swift project and the different research lines comprised in it. The latter cover aspects related to ship-construction, material culture and natural site-formation processes.
© 2006 The Authors