THE POSSIBLE FRACTIONATION OF LEAD ISOTOPES IN ANCIENT METALLURGICAL PROCESSES

The possibility of lead isotope fractionation in ancient lead production is examined. Kinetic theory relating to isotopic fractionation in non-equilibrium evaporation is considered and the feasibility of the alteration of lead isotope abundance ratios in ore roasting and smelting is assessed. Previous experimental work is shown to have been inconclusive and conclusions are drawn on the need for further research to quantify the possible extent of fractionation in practice.     

THE PROVENANCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF NEAR EASTERN GLASS: OXYGEN ISOTOPES BY LASER FLUORINATION AS A COMPLEMENT TO STRONTIUM*

The ability to make rapid measurements on small samples using laser fluorination enhances the potential of oxygen isotopes in the investigation of early inorganic materials and technologies. δ¹⁸O and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values are presented for glass from two primary production sites, four secondary production sites and a consumer site in the Near East, dating from Late Antiquity to the medieval period. δ¹⁸O is in general slightly less effective than ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr in discriminating between sources, as the spread of measured values from a single source is somewhat broader relative to the available range. However, while ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr is derived predominantly from either the lime‐bearing fraction of the glass‐making sand or the plant ash used as a source of alkali, δ¹⁸O derives mainly from the silica. Thus the two measurements can provide complementary information. A comparison of δ¹⁸O for late Roman – Islamic glasses made on the coast of Syria–Palestine with those of previously analysed glasses from Roman Europe suggests that the European glasses are relatively enriched in ¹⁸O. This appears to contradict the view that most Roman glass was made using Levantine sand and possible interpretations are discussed.     

PETROGRAPHIC AND STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSES OF LATE CLASSIC ULÚA MARBLE VASES AND POTENTIAL SOURCES*

Ulúa marble vases from the Ulúa Valley of northwestern Honduras are a hallmark luxury good from Late Classic (ad 600–900) Mesoamerica. Archaeological and stylistic data point to centralized production at one site, Travesía. This paper analyses stable isotope and petrographic data from the vases and three potential procurement areas. The results indicate that the vases were produced from one primary source with one, potentially two, secondary sources. Procurement patterns most probably corresponded to contemporary communication routes. The results clearly indicate that a multi‐method approach is necessary for sourcing marble from Honduras.     

A LEAD ISOTOPE DATABASE: THE LOS PEDROCHES – ALCUDIA AREA (SPAIN); IMPLICATIONS FOR ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL CONNECTIONS ACROSS SOUTHWESTERN AND SOUTHEASTERN IBERIA*

One hundred and twenty‐five new lead isotopic analyses on galena, mainly from the Los Pedroches – Alcudia Valley area of southern Iberia, are presented. These data allow us to define four compositional groups in the ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb versus ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb and ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb versus ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb diagrams. Group I compositions are intermediate between those previously reported for southeastern and southwestern Iberian ore mineral locations. The compositions of Group II, the largest group, overlap with ore data from southwestern Spain. Groups III and IV have compositions that have never before been identified in this region and are comparable to those from the Sardinian Cu ores, which might explain the previously assumed exotic origin for local Bronze Age artefacts.     

THE PROPERTIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF MARBLE FROM PROCONNESOS (MARMARA ISLAND,TURKEY): A NEW DATABASE INCLUDING ISOTOPIC,EPR AND PETROGRAPHIC DATA*

This paper reports an updated and enlarged archaeometric database of Proconnesos marbles with the aim of attaining more reliable inter‐ and intra‐site identification. Quarry and artefact samples (n = 397) from 23 different quarrying areas were characterized using petrographic, isotopic and EPR results. The most distinct property of Proconnesos marbles is their extremely weak EPR intensity, associated with the low concentration of Mn²⁺impurities. This feature, supported by the contribution of other important isotopic and petrographic variables, forms the basis for the correct identification of Proconnesos marbles. Within the site the distribution of properties is relatively homogeneous; only limited intra‐site discrimination is possible. All the experimental results, as well as the quarry samples are made available to other researchers willing to measure additional experimental properties, thus increasing the rate of within the site discrimination. Extensive survey has proved that, although about 10% of the samples exhibit maximum grain size below 1.0 mm, no locations exist where fine grained marbles could be intentionally quarried. The historical aspects of Proconnesos marble quarrying and usage are also discussed.     

GEOGRAPHICAL PATTERNS IN BIOLOGICALLY AVAILABLE STRONTIUM,CARBON AND OXYGEN ISOTOPE SIGNATURES IN PREHISTORIC SW GERMANY*

In order to interpret strontium and oxygen isotope values in Neolithic human skeletons analysed previously, we begin to map the biologically available strontium, carbon and oxygen isotopic signatures of prehistoric southern Germany by analysing tooth enamel of pigs from archaeological sites distributed around the region. The mapping shows a marked upland–lowland difference in biologically available ⁸⁷ Sr/ ⁸⁶ Sr values, ranging between 0.7086 and 0.7103 in the sedimentary lowlands, and from 0.710 to as high as 0.722 in the crystalline uplands of the Odenwald, the Black Forest and the Bavarian Forest. In addition, carbon isotopes in the carbonate fraction of pig enamel were generally about 1–2 more enriched in ¹³ C in the uplands. Despite the expected depletion of ¹⁸ O with altitude, oxygen isotopes in pig enamel showed little correlation with site altitude, although for pig samples not older than the Iron Age there was some geographical correlation withδ¹⁸O patterns in modern precipitation.     

LEAD ISOTOPE ANALYSES OF ISLAMIC POTTERY GLAZES FROM FUSTAT,EGYPT*

Lead isotope analyses have been undertaken on a group of Islamic lead‐glazed pottery artefacts from Fustat, Egypt, spanning the period from the eighth to the 14th century ad , that had previously been the subject of a comprehensive typological, chronological, petrographic and technological study. Comparison of the lead isotope ratios for the glazes with those for lead ores from Egypt, Iran, Tunisia, Anatolia, Greece, Sardinia and Spain provided information on the possible sources of the lead used in the production of the glazes. The results show that the lead used in glaze production by the Islamic potters at Fustat was most probably obtained from distant ore sources in Iran or Tunisia, Sardinia, Spain and the Taurus Mountains. Different ore sources were favoured in different periods and, to a limited extent, for different types of pottery, but at no time did the Fustat potters use the potentially more accessible Egyptian ore sources.     

FINGERPRINTING OF ROMAN MINTS USING LASER‐ABLATION MC–ICP–MS LEAD ISOTOPE ANALYSIS*

In this paper we present data to demonstrate the applicability of laser‐ablation MC–ICP–MS isotope analysis to archaeological artefacts, in this case Roman silver coins. The technique requires no chemical preparation, does minimal damage to the sample and yields external reproducibility that is better than conventional TIMS analysis; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb =±0.015% 2σ in comparison with ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb =±0.04% 2σ, respectively. We show that Pb isotope compositions give isotope fingerprints to mints despite the likely reworking of the metal during coin production.     

THE POTENTIAL OF CARBONIZED GRAIN TO PRESERVE BIOGENIC 87SR/86SR SIGNATURES WITHIN THE BURIAL ENVIRONMENT*

Carbonized grains survive for millennia in many archaeological contexts. Their stable structure raises the possibility that they preserve biogenic strontium isotope signatures. This hypothesis was investigated using short‐term, laboratory experiments with modern grain immersed in Chalk solution. HCl leaching removed > 95% of secondary alteration from charred grain, and isotope ratios close to the starting value were recovered. This could not be achieved with uncharred grains. HCl leaching of archaeological carbonized grains produced comparable levels of decontamination. Although preliminary, these results suggest that strontium isotope analysis of archaeological carbonized grains from calcareous burial contexts could be used to investigate ancient trade and agriculture.     

COMPOSITIONAL VARIATION IN ROMAN COLOURLESS GLASS OBJECTS FROM THE BOCHOLTZ BURIAL (THE NETHERLANDS)*

We investigated the major and trace element composition and Pb and Sr isotope characteristics of a series of about 20 colourless glass objects from a single high‐status Roman burial from the Netherlands (Bocholtz). The major elements show a relatively homogeneous group, with one outlier. This is corroborated by the Sr isotopes. Based on the Sb and Pb content, three major groups can be discerned, with two other outliers. This grouping is corroborated by the contents of the trace elements Bi, Sn, Ag, As and Mo, and by variations in lead isotopic ratios. On the basis of these results, we conclude that the glass of all objects was probably made with sand and lime from the same source. The variation in trace elements and lead isotope composition is most likely the result of variations in the composition of the sulphidic antimony ore(s) that were used to decolourize the glass. The composition of the Bocholtz glass is compared with that of other Roman glass, and implications for production models, trade and use of colourless glass objects are discussed. On the basis of isotopic and major element variation, we conclude that the antimony ore presumably originated from different mines.