Nationalism studies between methodological nationalism and orientalism: an alternative approach illustrated with the case of El Greco in Toledo,Spain

Methodological nationalism is still dominant in nationalism studies. When studying the construction of national identities, scholars generally limit their study to the borders of one nation‐state, while only paying attention to members of that particular nation. Implicitly, foreign actors and influences are left out of the picture. I will challenge this methodological nationalism with a case study, which demonstrates that the place of Toledo within the Spanish national imagination, and more particularly that of El Greco, the most important representative of the city's artistic heritage, was largely determined by foreigners. During the nineteenth century, El Greco was rediscovered primarily by foreign scholars and artists. Moreover, it would be the rise of international tourism in the early twentieth century that convinced Toledans to adopt El Greco as the city's main artistic icon. This case, thus, clearly shows that in nationalism studies methodological nationalism can be avoided by also including foreign actors.     

The Architectural Reuse of Roman Marble and Stone Spolia in the Early Medieval Monte Sorbo Church (Sarsina,Central Italy)

We present the results of a multi‐method archaeometric study concerning the architectural elements reused in Monte Sorbo church (Sarsina, central Italy) between the eighth and ninth centuries AD . The provenance study has focused on classical marbles and stones, which clearly do not originate from the local Apennine geological formations and are thought to come from extra‐regional sources. A large fraction of the tested marbles is from Asia Minor, coming from both the Proconnesian district on Marmara Island and, probably, the Hasançavuslar site near Ephesus (Greco scritto). Of the four remaining marbles investigated, one is from the Carrara district and three are from different Greek quarrying areas, such as Mount Pentelikon (Athens) and the Thasos and Paros islands. The data also highlight the reuse of decorated gravestones made of Pietra di Aurisina as architectonic elements. This limestone is a fossiliferous carbonate stone outcropping in the Trieste Karst region (north‐eastern Italy), which was exploited by both the Romans and the Byzantines. The assignment of all of the columns of the central nave to the same source area provides an argument in favour of their provenance from a single monument, which was probably located in Sarsina or Ravenna, with the ‘colourful taste’ that is typical of the late Antonine and Severian periods.     

The Tomb of the Three Brothers in Palmyra: The Use of Mimetite,A Rare Yellow Pigment,in A Rich Decoration

The wall paintings of the Tomb of the Three Brothers in Palmyra display a very rich Greco‐Roman iconography. The study of the painting reveals the use of a great variety of pigments, including Egyptian blue and an extremely rare bright yellow pigment, mimetite, of which no other traces are known for this period. This pigment was identified through the combined use of two methods of analysis, scanning electron microscopy associated with X‐ray microanalysis (SEM–EDS) and X‐ray micro‐diffraction (XRD). The varied chromatic palette used underlines the refinement and the particular care given to these decorations. Notable differences have been found between the pigments of the decorations of the arch and those used for the rest of the chamber.     

Petrographic Characterization and Provenance Determination of the Crystalline Marbles Used in the Roman City of Banasa (Morocco): New Data on the Import of Iberian Marble in Roman North Africa

This paper reports the results of an archaeometric study of the crystalline marbles used in the Roman city of Banasa (Morocco). On‐site surveys allowed a detailed inspection of the monuments of the ancient city and sampling of the different marble lithotypes used for architectural purposes and sculptures. The inventory was completed by the study of both the grey‐and‐white streaked or spotted marble items stored in the warehouse of the archaeological site and of those currently exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Rabat. Provenance determination of 28 samples was carried out by means of a multi‐method approach combining mineralogical–petrographic data and C–O stable isotope analyses as the first step, and cathodoluminescence microscopy as a complementary technique to verify possible unusual alternative origins of some marbles. The analytical results obtained were compared with both the most reliable international databases and the few available studies dealing with the use of marble in other Roman towns in Morocco (e.g., Volubilis, Thamusida and Sala‐Chellah). They point to a variety of classical marble sources such as Carrara, Mount Penteli, Paros, Marmara and probably Mount Filfila (Algeria), and prove a significant import of Iberian lithotypes.     

Archaeometric analysis of the ‘greco scritto’ marble slabs from the Edificio dei Triclinii at Murecine (Pompeii,Italy)

This paper presents the results of the archaeometric analysis of the greco scritto marble slabs from the Edificio dei Triclinii, an inn or statio negotiatorum discovered at Murecine in Pompeii’s suburbs in 1999–2000. A total of 14 samples were collected and subjected to standard X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy (OM) on thin sections and stable isotope ratio analysis (SIRA) to assess the stone’s identity and provenance. The results of this study substantiate the hypothesis (already put forward and based on a macroscopic identification by Perna and Scognamiglio) that the stone originates from the Hasançavuşlar quarries near Ephesus in Asia Minor, and represent the first step towards a systematic contextual and geochemical study of Ephesian greco scritto in Roman contexts and its respective contribution to the Roman stone trade.