COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS IN THE SOUTHEASTERN ALPS: AN OVERVIEW*

In recent years, several groups of archaeological metal finds from the areas around the southeastern Alps, dated between Bronze Age and Roman times, have been scientifically analysed (by ICP, AAS and/or XRF) within the framework of different projects. The data now available give a fairly good general picture of the evolution and development of metallurgy in this area and seem to indicate that the region played an important role in the exchange of objects and raw materials over many centuries. The significance of some of the metal finds, which are particularly relevant for this research, is discussed.     

Was He Murdered Or Was He Not?—Part I: Analyses of Mercury in the Remains of Tycho Brahe

World‐renowned Renaissance astronomer Tycho Brahe died on 24 October 1601, after 11 days of illness. Several conspiracy theories regarding his death have been aired, the first shortly after his death by William Shakespeare in the play Hamlet, published in 1603. A key factor in the still lively debate is whether he was administered mercury—as medicine by his own hand, or as poison by an unfriendly hand. In 2010, Brahe's grave was reopened and samples of his bones, hair, teeth and the textiles were procured and analysed. Here, we present evidence that Brahe was not administered lethal doses of mercury.     

Heavy Metals in Sediments of the Upper Hawkesbury‐Nepean River

There is little published information on heavy metals in surficial sediments of the upper Hawkesbury‐Nepean River in central New South Wales, Australia. In the current investigation, the fine fraction (<62.5 µm) of 90 sediment samples taken from this section of the river was analysed by flame‐Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy for nine heavy metals (Ag, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu Co, Fe, Ni and Mn) to determine background and enrichment. Sediment in the upper Hawkesbury‐Nepean River is not heavily polluted by heavy metals. Maximum enrichment over background for Ni and Ag, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu and Mn is 3x, 5.7x, 6x, 6.7x, 12x and 13.6x, respectively. Mean heavy metal concentrations for this, the upper section of the river, are about half the mean values for the Hawkesbury River between Windsor and Broken Bay in the lower, estuarine section of the river. The highest Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations (214, 108 and 334 mg kg^?1, respectively) occur in surficial sediments in Peachtree Creek at Penrith and the Nepean River near Jacksons Lane, Castlereagh. These metal concentrations are possibly associated with industrial activity at Penrith. Two of the six sewage treatment plants on the upper Hawkesbury‐Nepean River are associated with high metal concentrations (Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn) in sediments, that is, the West Camden and Penrith sewage treatment plants. Other possible sources of heavy metals are coal mining and washing which occurs at several places in the upper catchment. The highest Cd, Co and Fe concentrations (1.7, 27.6 mg kg^?1 and 4.81%, respectively) were found in sediments 400 m downstream of the Nepean Dam and the highest concentrations of Ni and Mn (54 and 790 mg kg^?1, respectively) were located in sediment from the Nepean River at Moresby Hill Road Bridge, near Robertson and at the Avon Dam Road Bridge. The source of these metals is unknown.     

The Early Bronze Age settlement of Fidvár,Vráble (Slovakia): reconstructing prehistoric settlement patterns using portable XRF

This paper presents first results of chemical analyses of sediment samples from the Early Bronze Age (EBA) settlement Fidvár near Vráble (Slovakia). Large-scale geomagnetic prospection revealed detailed architectural remains of a fortified settlement. Other structures such as an earthwork of the linear pottery culture and at least two Roman march camps were found too. An Auger programme provided sediment samples of different depths, A) from an EBA house and the outer fortification ditch, B) from a potential metal workshop area as indicated by surface finds, and C) from an area located in the settlement's centre. The samples were analysed by a portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometer in order to investigate the vertical and horizontal distribution of chemical signatures. The comparison of geophysical data and three-dimensional chemical patterns gives us the opportunity to determine the human impact and to reconstruct activity patterns. The potentials and limits in the application of pXRF in archaeological soil chemical surveys are evaluated by systematic comparisons with high resolution laboratory measurements, including atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The pXRF analyses can be reproduced well and show a good accuracy. Whilst (p)XRF analyses reflect the total composition of archaeological soil samples, the results of the AAS and ICP-OES analyses are fundamentally influenced by the acid digestion or extraction methods used. The pXRF analyses of the Vráble soils showed typical patterns of human occupation. For example, there are strong positive correlations between phosphorous, strontium and calcium. Phosphorous shows an enrichment in pathways and the fortification ditch. It is less strongly enriched within the sediments of house structures. Similar results apply to calcium and strontium distribution. But compared to the respective concentrations in sediment samples from the ditch they show a considerably higher variation in samples associated with house structures; that is, individual samples of sediments from house structures contained high concentrations of both, calcium and strontium. The deposits of an area that according to surface finds was thought to represent a potential metal workshop did not show indicative chemical signatures. Targeted excavations confirmed the absence of such as workshop. Finally it was shown that the refill history of the innermost fortification ditch (sample area D) and the overall cultural occupation sequence at the site correlate strongly with the chemical signatures of the respective ditch profile. The systematic variation of key elements along the profile opens up an entirely new perspective for interpreting the site's history. Overall, the study shows the great potential of pXRF as valuable part of an archaeological survey toolkit.     

Identification of activity area signatures in a reconstructed Iron Age house by combining element and lipid analyses of sediments

One promising analytical method used in household archaeology in addition to inorganic (element) geochemical analysis is that of organic (lipid) analysis applied to anthropogenic sediments. We use both methods here to review chemical imprints that might be useful for recognizing space use and identifying daily activities in a reconstructed Iron Age village at Lejre, Denmark. As documented in many previous studies, element analysis enabled separate activity areas to be distinguished, but the results could not be used to identify the specific activities pursued in the areas. A more qualitative identification of activity areas was possible through lipid analysis, however. The carbon chain distribution, studied for Average Chain Length (ACL), Carbon chain Diversity Index (CDI) and Carbon Preference Index (CPI), enabled a similar separation to be achieved as by element analysis, so that the same areas could be discerned in addition to the reference samples. The stable was distinguished by a substantial input of coprostanol and even more so by 24-ethylcoprostanol, indicating a faecal input from herbivores. Trace levels of these markers were also identified at the entrance, where the animals had passed through. The dwelling area, consisting of two adjacent rooms, could be identified by the sterol ratio (cholesterol/[stigmasterol + β-sitosterol + campesterol]). Lipids from an archaeological context have decayed further toward simpler compounds and become more difficult to identify. Some markers have however a better potential for survival. The results emphasize the importance of further studies on ethnoarchaeological material in order to recognize past activities by element analysis. Moreover, the combination of element and lipid analyses provided a tool that enabled all the separate areas to be identified and provided positive identification of the activities concerned in all areas except the smithy.     

The effect of cremation on the study of trace elements

Cremation was a frequent practice during the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe. The destruction caused by this rite has meant that there are few anthropological studies of this period and that the amount of information that has been obtained is limited. Most studies deal with the number of individuals and the temperature of cremation. At present, however, studies are under way to determine the possibility of carrying out analyses of trace elements on cremated individuals in order to determine their diet. The present study, carried out at a necropolis with two kinds of burial (S'Illot des Porros, Mallorca, Iron Age), presents new data regarding the diagenetic effects differentiating cremated from buried bones. The levels of Sr, Ca, Ba, Zn, Cu and Mg in the spongy and cortical tissue of 197 femurs are analysed. The results obtained at this necropolis demonstrate that only the levels of calcium and magnesium in the cortical tissue of cremated bones increase, so diagenesis acts in the same way in cremated and non-cremated bones in this necropolis.