SELECTION AND HEATING OF COLOURING MATERIALS IN THE MOUSTERIAN LEVEL OF ES‐SKHUL (c. 100 000 YEARS BP,MOUNT CARMEL,ISRAEL)

The transformation of yellow goethite into red hematite by heating has long been assumed for Palaeolithic red artefacts excavated close to fireplaces. However, this transformation is extremely rare. Using SEM–FEG–EDX, PIXE–PIGE, TEM and μXRD, we characterized the mineralogical and chemical compositions of four microsamples of colouring materials from the Mousterian layer B in the es‐Skhul rock‐shelter, from about 100 kya ago. For some colouring materials, the Mousterian people of es‐Skhul chose to gather remote yellow lumps for heating. Their significant transport distance provides evidence of the possible high cultural value of these colouring materials for transformation into red pigments.     

Politicians versus Historians: Lord Avon's 'Appeasement Battle' against 'Lamentably, Appeasement-Minded' Historians

In retirement, Sir Anthony Eden, seeking to safeguard the anti-appeaserimage cultivated following his resignation as Neville Chamberlain'sForeign Secretary in 1938, proved extremely sensitive to theway in which his political career was presented in memoirs,biographies, and histories. Eden, who accepted the earldom ofAvon in 1961, saw himself as refighting old politcal battles,except that by the 1960s his attack was directed increasinglyagainst what he described as ‘lament-ably, appeasement-minded’history professors rather than former politicians. During 1966–7objections to Frederick Northedge's The Troubled Giant evenled him at one stage to consider legal action for defamationof character. The ensuing dispute, highlighting Lord Avon'spreoccupation with the verdict of history, illuminated alsothe varying, often conflicting, perspectives adopted towardsthe past by historians and politicians. ^*Earlier versions of this paper were presented to the BISA BritishInternational History Group Conference at the University ofExeter, September 1996, and the Millennium after 25 Years Conferenceat the LSE, October 1996. I am grateful to the Countess of Avon,the Marquess of Salisbury, the Borthwick Institute of HistoricalResearch at the University of York, the Master and Fellows ofChurchill College at Cambridge, and the Archivist of CarmarthenshireRecords Service at Carmarthen, for permission to quote fromthe papers of the first Earl of Avon, The Marquess of Salisbury,the Earls of Halifax, Lord Strang, and Viscount Cilcennin respectively.I am particularly indebted to Muriel Grieve, Professor Northedge'swidow, for assistance in my research and permission to quotefrom her husband's correspondence and publications, as wellas to Sir Bryan Cartledge, who helped Lord Avon with his memoirs.     

The Basque power‐sharing experience: from a destructive to a constructive conflict?

ABSTRACT. Neither the devolution of powers to the Basque Autonomous Community in Spain nor more than a decade of power‐sharing within this region has led to a peaceful settlement of the Basque conflict. Combining Kriesberg's approach to conflict resolution and consociational theory, past power‐sharing experiences are analysed. The lack of overarching loyalties, traditions of compromise, comprehensive participation and the continuation of violence have frustrated power‐sharing. After the 2006 ceasefire, the conditions for giving the conflict a constructive turn have not fundamentally changed. The potential for alternative forms of power‐sharing as a way out of the Basque conflict, combined or not with innovative territorial arrangements cannot be employed because of multi‐scale polarisation. De‐escalation as a prerequisite for new types of power‐sharing arrangements requires relearning democratic pluralism and a recognition of ethnic hybridity in this politically and geographically fragmented society.     

ANALYSIS OF EUROPEAN AMBER BY CARBON-13 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY

Amber, a class of fossil resins, comprises largely terpenoid components. The structure of the major, insoluble portion has not been defined previously. We report the analysis of European amber by carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy directly on solid samples. Two major types are defined, depending on the appearance of the alkene resonances. Baltic amber (succinite), along with other northern ambers such as gedanite, has a pronounced resonance from an exomethylene group. The southerly ambers (rumanite, schraufite, walchowite, delatynite and true simetites) lack the exomethylene resonances. The succinite group gives spectra consistent with a labdane-type precursor and the rumanite-like ambers give spectra consistent with an abietane-type precursor. These results are best explained by at least two different palaeobotanical sources of the fossil resins.     

A STUDY OF THE SILVERING PROCESS OF THE GALLO‐ROMAN COINS FORGED DURING THE THIRD CENTURY AD*

We have observed by fast neutron activation analysis (FNAA) that the global composition of the official silver coins of the Gallic emperor Postumus is not the same as those from the contemporary unofficial mints. In order to explain this phenomenon, we have carried out a metallographic study of the artefacts. Then, we have re‐created the silvering process of unofficial coins in order to better understand the manufacturing process of silvering. The different steps of the replication process are explained in this paper.