从《江南禀稿》看奏折处理中的弊端

奏折是清代独创的一种官方公文,是高级官员向皇帝请示、报告政务的主要文书。任何历史时期,各种公务文书,都是统治者实施统治政策的工具,自然地产生并发挥其自身的作用。奏折文书亦不例外,从它开始作为一种官文书使用,就鲜明地表现出它自身的特点和活力,成为清统治者的有力工具。奏折文书自康熙中期开始使用,最初仅是皇帝的亲信,用来密告下情、请安问好,与皇帝私相往来。至康熙后期,奏折开始被推广使用,逐渐取代了题本的主要功能,而成为官员上报政务的主要文书。当这一文书制度逐渐形成并扩大使用之初,在撰拟、封发、呈递,以至批、转、办、结等种种环节上,都具有堪称最为严谨、慎密的规定,其程式简便,传递亦迅捷。它的使用不仅是清代文书制度的一项重大改革,尤其对清代皇帝的集权政治,起到了极其重要的作用。     

发展地理学(摘译)

"发展地理学"(Development geog?aphy)是运用地理学的理论观点去研究不同国家的社会经济发展,它特别注重研究社会发展史、发展中国家的社会经济问题,它既是地理学的一门分支,也是属于社会科学中新兴的"发展研究"或"发展学"的一部份."发展地理学"在国外是一门渐受重视的地理学分支,已产生了几派不同的理论,总结了不少经验,特别是有关于"空间发展"以及对外贸易方面.我国现在正在进行"四化"建设,正处于"发展"中,这门地理学中有不少理论和研究都是很值得我国在制定政策、评估项目等加以参考,这一切都和"发展地理学"息息相关,要找出一套适合中国国情的社会经济、空间发展模式,必须对国外"发展学"的理论有所认识,别人的经济发展策略,特别是其他发展中国家的,有所了解."发展地理学"作为"发展学"的一门,是值得我们进一步认识.作为地理工作者,我们也要为我国的经济社会发展的策略出谋献计.由于国内介绍这方面理论的文章仍是很少,就是最近出版的中国大百科全书的地理学卷的《人文地理学》也没有对"发展地理学"加以介绍,我们摘译了这篇较全面的文章,希望使国内的地理工作者对这方面有更深、更确切的了解.原文两位作者为澳大利亚国立大学人文地理系的高级研究员.这本书涉及面较广,包揽了传统的发展理论和新近发展的理论;评论也较有深度,提出来可以思考的东西很多;另外,文章把各种理论的发展和当时的历史情况联系起来,使人对一种理论的兴起、衰落的背景有更深的认识.当然,原文的观点并不代表译者的意见.由于原文颇长,我们翻译时稍微作了一些撮写,并写了一些按语,解释容易混淆的地方.     

Progress in the human geography of the Maghreb

Sutton and Lawless review a selection of the prolific literature on the Maghreb's human geography published from the late 1970s onward. The pedigree of the discipline in Maghreb was established by several notable geographers who lived, researched, and wrote there. Augustin Bernard's writings on rural settlement, his atlas, and study of Algeria are still cited. Jean Despois's regional study with Raynal and his work on Tunisia, together with the detailed rural research of Jean Poncet, provides a particularly rich coverage for that country. Jean Dresch's early work on Morocco exemplified an early critique of the contemporaneous uncritical colonial human geography. The Sahara's fascination also inspired pioneering studies by Robert Capot-Rey. The work of these notables and others provided a solid background of geographical literature on the Maghreb to be supplemented, criticized, and challenged by more recent researchers, sometimes pupils of the above individuals, and increasingly North African by birth. The tradition of general texts on the Maghreb has continued, though increasingly with systematic approaches replacing regional appraisals. The geography of the decolonization of the Maghreb by Isnard has been replaced by a study summarizing recent collaborative work by a team of French geographers. The Saharan extensions of the Maghreb states have often been linked in general works, sometimes being juxtaposed against the Maghreb as in the essays offered to Jean Despois. Lawless and Findlay's collaborative study juxtaposes geographical studies of each country's economic development with political scientists' evaluations of their sociopolitical development. This review limits itself largely to geographers and geographical journals, only occasionally including significant works from other subject areas, and to 1977-1978 publications, with a few notable exceptions. The spatial juxtaposition of contrasting approaches to economic development, liberal market economy approaches by Tunisia and Morocco arguably leading to dependency, and centrally-planned strategies by Algeria and Libya resulting in bureaucratic constraints serves to offer the Maghreb as a pertinent case-study region for the applied geographer of developing countries.