Testing micro-regional variability in the Holocene shaping of high mountain cultural landscapes: a palaeoenvironmental case-study in the eastern Pyrenees

Previous research acknowledges the ancient and complex land-use history of European mountainous areas, which are characterised by a remarkable regional variability in terms of human practices and patterns of occupation during the Holocene. However, the combined palaeoenvironmental and archaeological study of highland human management at a micro-regional scale remains a largely unexplored research field, especially in the Pyrenees. A combined pollen, stomata, non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs) and macrocharcoal study was carried out at three nearby alpine and subalpine peat basins from a relatively small territory (ca.1700 ha) at the Madriu valley (Andorra, eastern Pyrenees), following a fine spatial-resolution strategy. The purpose was to test the suitability of high altitudinal palaeoecological sequences when reconstructing past small-scale land-use variability. The palaeoecological results of those peat records are compared and further integrated with archaeological local data, and together underline the marked complexity of high mountain land-use system over the Holocene period. Main phases of micro-regional land-use and landscape variability can be distinguished from the middle Neolithic to the early Bronze Age and from the Roman Period to the Modern Era. Conversely, several phases of homogeneous landscape management are distinguishable during the early Neolithic, and from the late Bronze to the late Iron Age. Results drawn from this study show that landscape variability is not necessarily connected to topographic or climatic parameters, and underline the role of social, economical and cultural parameters in the land-use organisation and the landscape shaping of high mountain spaces since Prehistory.     

宋元时期吴淞江流域的稻作生态与水稻土形成

北宋初期,吴淞江流域仍有许多圩田内存在着大量的休耕地与不得耕种的积水田,水稻土的脱潜与剖面发育较慢。到了后期,吴淞江流域的水环境和农作技术都在推动着水稻土剖面的完全形成。宋初的丰水环境出现了变化,吴淞江的淤塞使这一地区的旱田化作用增加,脱潜化程度加强。与此同时,农作技术的发展,特别是搁稻、施肥、翻青和开沟技术,都促进了水稻土的良性发展。     

水土保持:大泉山典型的塑造

大泉山作为水土保持典型的塑造是伴随着新中国农业合作化运动的浪潮实现的。张凤林和高进才一开始对大泉山严峻的自然环境进行改造,主要基于生存的需要。他们在改造生存环境实践中积累的宝贵经验,在整个国家历史进程中被作为水土保持工作的典型加以大力宣传和推广,并被不断赋予普遍意义,实际上是一种历史合力综合作用的结果。大泉山典型塑造的过程凸显了集体化时代中国农村社会发展的一种制度安排。因此,对大泉山村的个案研究为全面剖析集体化时期国家与社会的关系提供了重要经验。     

The Conservation and Degradation of Archaeological Soil Features in Flanders and Brussels: The example of Watermaal-Bosvoorde

Ten years ago, an extensive literature study on the conservation and degradation of soil features in Flanders was conducted. The outcome was a report discussing the state of preservation. The present contribution intends to synthesize the chief outcomes of that research and to present a case study where the theoretical knowledge and recommendations then put forward have been applied.     

To Have and to Hold? Recent Research on the State of Preservation of the Roman Fort of Fectio (Municipality of Bunnik), the Netherlands

The transformation of the Roman fort of Fectio was seized upon to gain insight into the factors that determine the degradation of metal finds and the relationship with different forms of land use. The research showed no difference in the preservation of metal finds from different burial contexts, including disturbed contexts. A possible explanation for the good condition of the metal finds is the presence of organic waste and building material that, together with the clayey soil, create an ideal burial environment for non-ferrous metals.     

Cover it! The Protection of a Merovingian Burial Ground in Borgharen (Municipality of Maastricht), the Netherlands

A Merovingian burial ground in Borgharen was threatened by development. Plans however could be changed so the site could be preserved. The initial research however showed the bone material was at risk of severe degradation in the near future. In order to determine whether in situ preservation was feasible three campaigns were carried out. This led to the conclusion that the burial conditions were excellent and there was little risk that severe degradation will reduce archaeological information of the site over the coming decades. The remaining threat concerned illegal excavators with metal detectors and spades. To protect the site it was covered with a series of different materials to prevent the site from being looted.     

A Qualitative Approach for Assessment of the Burial Environment by Interpreting Soil Characteristics; A Necessity for Archaeological Monitoring

Abstract

Modern-day archaeological monitoring is often hampered by lack of money, lack of time, inadequate measuring equipment, and lack of insight in the conservation potential of a site.

Although in modern archaeological excavations soil characteristics are noted (colour, texture, groundwater level, and sometimes mineralogy), these characteristics are mainly used for the interpretation of a site. However, by looking to these characteristics from a conservational view eventually combined with the conservation status of the archaeological objects, much can be learned about the burial environment. This is essential for optimizing archaeological monitoring.

Degradation processes result from the change of reactive phases in the soil or the site. Reactive phases are soil components such as organic matter, sulfides, iron(hydr)oxides and carbonates (chalk, shells), and, if present, components in the ground or interstitial water such as hydrogen ions and sulphate. The presence of these phases can easily be established by the archaeologist or soil scientist in the field. We propose a simple field-based method for assessing degradation processes essential for in situ preservation and monitoring.     

Multi-element soil prospection aiding geophysical and archaeological survey on an archaeological site in suburban Sagalassos (SW-Turkey)

In order to take full advantage of the archaeological information contained within buried archaeological sites, it is important to apply an integrative approach combining complementary prospection methods. In this study, geochemical prospection data are combined with archaeological and geophysical survey results on an unexcavated site in suburban Sagalassos (SW-Turkey), with the aim of obtaining better insights into the structural shapes and past functionalities of the area. Spatial and multivariate statistical analyses of the chemical data reveal anomalies of K, P and Zn on a location where archaeological and geophysical results suggest the presence of ceramic producing kilns. These elemental enrichments are thought to result from burning wood or dung as fuel for the detected kilns. In addition, local anomalies of Co, Cr, Fe, Mg, Mn and Ni were found to reflect the working and storage of ophiolitic clays, employed as a raw material for ceramic production. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal in a 2.5 m deep drill core in this zone provides ages between AD 120 and 350 at depths of 50 and 60 cm. Al, As, Ba, Ca, Na, Sr, Ti and Pb are considered geogenic elements in this study. The present study supports the theory that geochemical prospection holds potential as a surveying technique, as it was found that chemical data facilitate the interpretation of structures detected by geophysical and archaeological methods, thereby creating an extra dimension to the interpretation of survey data. The results further argue in favour of using strong-acid extractions and the consideration of a large suite of elements when applying chemical soil survey as an archaeological prospection technique, and highlight the importance of considering site lithology. Multivariate statistics proved to be invaluable in distinguishing anthropogenic from lithological soil patterns.     

The Early Bronze Age settlement of Fidvár,Vráble (Slovakia): reconstructing prehistoric settlement patterns using portable XRF

This paper presents first results of chemical analyses of sediment samples from the Early Bronze Age (EBA) settlement Fidvár near Vráble (Slovakia). Large-scale geomagnetic prospection revealed detailed architectural remains of a fortified settlement. Other structures such as an earthwork of the linear pottery culture and at least two Roman march camps were found too. An Auger programme provided sediment samples of different depths, A) from an EBA house and the outer fortification ditch, B) from a potential metal workshop area as indicated by surface finds, and C) from an area located in the settlement's centre. The samples were analysed by a portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometer in order to investigate the vertical and horizontal distribution of chemical signatures. The comparison of geophysical data and three-dimensional chemical patterns gives us the opportunity to determine the human impact and to reconstruct activity patterns. The potentials and limits in the application of pXRF in archaeological soil chemical surveys are evaluated by systematic comparisons with high resolution laboratory measurements, including atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The pXRF analyses can be reproduced well and show a good accuracy. Whilst (p)XRF analyses reflect the total composition of archaeological soil samples, the results of the AAS and ICP-OES analyses are fundamentally influenced by the acid digestion or extraction methods used. The pXRF analyses of the Vráble soils showed typical patterns of human occupation. For example, there are strong positive correlations between phosphorous, strontium and calcium. Phosphorous shows an enrichment in pathways and the fortification ditch. It is less strongly enriched within the sediments of house structures. Similar results apply to calcium and strontium distribution. But compared to the respective concentrations in sediment samples from the ditch they show a considerably higher variation in samples associated with house structures; that is, individual samples of sediments from house structures contained high concentrations of both, calcium and strontium. The deposits of an area that according to surface finds was thought to represent a potential metal workshop did not show indicative chemical signatures. Targeted excavations confirmed the absence of such as workshop. Finally it was shown that the refill history of the innermost fortification ditch (sample area D) and the overall cultural occupation sequence at the site correlate strongly with the chemical signatures of the respective ditch profile. The systematic variation of key elements along the profile opens up an entirely new perspective for interpreting the site's history. Overall, the study shows the great potential of pXRF as valuable part of an archaeological survey toolkit.     

Soil erosion and flooding on the eastern South Downs, southern England, 1976–2001

The South Downs in southern England have been farmed for 5000 years: the initial loess cover is now a thin, stony remnant as a result of erosion. During the 1980s, field monitoring of erosion events in an area of 36 km² showed that average rates of erosion are low (0.5–5.0 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹), but that occasional storms result in losses of over 200 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ on individual fields. On soils that are only 15 cm thick, such rates pose a threat to future farming. Almost all recent erosion has been on fields of winter cereals, which are bare in the wet autumn period. Of greater significance in the short term are the effects of soil-laden runoff (or muddy floods) on urban areas. Flood damage to property has been a regular event since the conversion of this area to winter cereals in the 1970s. Soil conservation measures have been negligible and flood protection has consisted mainly of engineering works and limited land-use change at sites where property damage has occurred. Conversion to grass under the Set Aside, and an Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme, could be an effective soil conservation and flood protection approach. In the longer term, increasing stoniness of soils, the economic incentives for arable farming in marginal areas, and the success of legal proceedings relating to flood damage, will determine the future of erosion on the South Downs. Current farming systems clearly are unsustainable and would become more so under future climates without substantial site-targeted land use change.