The effects of sample size on some derived measures in vertebrate faunal analysis

Analysis of three kinds of measures derived from archaeological and palaeontological faunal collections (measures of relative taxonomic abundance, measures of taxonomic diversity, and a measure proposed to distinguish natural from cultural bone) demonstrates that in many instances such measures may be, or are, a function of sample size. A procedure for detecting this situation is suggested, and the source of the interrelationships discussed.     

Quantification of dental caries by osteologists and odontologists—a validity and reliability study

As in modern populations, dental caries in early populations is linked to diet and general health. In order to record not only advanced disease states with frank cavitation of teeth but also early lesions, indicating the presence of the disease in a population, it is important that the archaeologist can correctly detect and classify lesions of varying severity. The present study compares and contrasts quantification of dental caries by osteologists and odontologists. Four osteologists and four odontologists undertook visual and radiographic inspection of 61 teeth from three different sources: medieval, 19th century and modern. Separate sets of criteria were applied to disclose observer confidence in detecting a lesion and in estimating lesion extent. For validation of visual assessments, the teeth were sectioned. Radiographic assessments were validated by a specialist in dental radiography. The results disclosed that the odontologists in general showed greater sensitivity than the osteologists, correctly identifying carious lesions, but the osteologists had higher specificity, correctly identifying healthy teeth. Thus, the osteologists tend to overlook carious lesions (under‐diagnosis), while the odontologists tend to incorrectly record lesions in healthy teeth (over‐diagnosis). For both osteologists and odontologists, correct assessment was poorer for radiographs than for visual inspection. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessing the reliability of criteria used to identify postcranial bones in sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra

Criteria developed to distinguish between selected postcranial elements of sheep and goats are evaluated using modern specimens from the collections of the Field Museum of Natural History, the National Museum of Natural History, and the Museum of Anthropology and the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. Elements considered are: the distal humerus, proximal and distal radius, distal tibia, distal metapodials, astragalus, calcaneus, and the first and second phalanx. This evaluation includes an assessment of 1385 elements from 49 goat and 84 modern sheep skeletons. It also includes a blind test on elements drawn from 20 specimens taken by six analysts with differing levels of experience. Overall, the criteria evaluated are highly reliable, especially in goats and only slightly less so in sheep. A major exception is the distal tibia, where diagnostic criteria tested proved substantially less reliable than other criteria evaluated here. Strongly positive results were also obtained when the sample was partitioned by sex, domestic status, and age. Results of the blind test show some variability depending on the level of experience of the analyst, underscoring the need for training and access to adequate modern reference collections before attempting to apply these criteria to archaeological assemblages. The results of this assessment stand in stark contrast to those obtained in an earlier assessment of the reliability of criteria used to distinguish between mandibles and mandibular teeth of sheep and goats. In all but a few teeth, dental criteria proved to be much less reliable, especially in goats. They were also significantly less reliable in the identification of both younger and older animals. Unlike dental criteria, there are no biases introduced by variable reliability of postcranial criteria that distort taxon-specific harvest profiles based on long-bones.     

The stable isotopic composition of historical black powder applicable to a Japanese Tanegashima matchlock

The objective of the present study is to employ stable isotope ratio measurements (δ¹⁵N, δ³⁴S and δ¹³C) of the nitrogen, sulphur and carbon in black powder (a mixture of saltpetre, native sulphur and charcoal) as a means of source identification. A sum total of 20 samples of historical black powder applicable to matchlocks were collected from six locations throughout Japan. This classic type of hand gun prevailed up to the introduction of the modern rifles, with quicker loading and higher efficiency, in the mid‐to‐late 19th century. δ¹³C_{charcoal carbon} values showed the predominant use of C₃ plants as a source material. Except for a few unusual samples with a probable exotic origin, δ¹⁵N_{saltpetre nitrogen} values were largely consistent with those of domestic products using classical biotechnology. The isotopic analysis for native sulphur (δ³⁴S_{native sulphur}) indicates a complicated marketing route.     

Language as a public good and national identity: Scotland's competing heritage languages

The preservation of one or several historically and culturally important languages may be a salient political issue in some polities. Although they may not be used as an active means of communication, these languages can also serve a symbolic identitary function. These ‘heritage’ languages can be seen as ‘public goods’ and that even non‐speakers of these languages can have opinions regarding their importance to national identity. In the Scotland example, while Gaelic has been the focus of proactive government legislation and education initiatives, Scots is still struggling for status as a recognised language. Both languages are in some way constituent parts of Scottish identity that at times may seem in competition with one another. Using original survey data, we delve deeper into questions of language, identity and politics in Scotland. First, we describe how public opinion is divided over the importance of Gaelic and Scots to Scottish identity. Second, we use attitudes towards these languages as a dependent variable looking at Scottish identity and attachment. Finally, we use these attitudes towards Gaelic and Scots as an independent variable in models for party identification in Scotland.     

纸质文物的热裂解气相色谱-质谱应用研究

对纸质文物的科学认知是保护这类珍贵文化遗产的关键。本研究将热裂解气相色谱-质谱(Py-GC/MS)技术应用到中国传统的四类典型手工纸(竹纸、麻纸、桑皮纸和构皮纸)的分析中,结果表明竹纸中苯酚类物质含量较高,桑皮纸和构皮纸中含有大分子三萜类特征物(如β-香树脂醇、α-香树脂醇和豆甾-3,5-二烯等物质),而麻纸中则无此类特征物——利用这些特征化合物可以区分竹纸、麻纸和桑皮/构皮纸。将这一成果应用到一副清代蜡笺纸对联的分析中：确定了该书法用纸为皮纸(桑皮纸或构皮纸);检测出长链脂肪酸和醇类物质,表明蜡笺纸的制作使用了蜂蜡;检测出吡咯及其衍生物,表明该书法蜡笺纸装裱时所用的胶结材料为动物胶;另外检测到了生物碱类物质,表明该蜡笺纸使用了植物染料。综合以上研究表明,Py-GC/MS方法不仅能够确定中国传统纸质文物的纤维来源,同时可以确定纸质文物上蜡、胶结物及染料等信息;结合传统的赫兹伯格(Herzberg)染色法,进一步确定了皮纸的具体种类。蜡笺纸文物材料信息的检测识别可为文物保护与修复工作提供科学依据,此研究方法为纸质文物的科学认知提供新思路。     

State of preservation of polymorphic plasma proteins recovered from ancient human bones

Protected by the mineral matrix, bone proteins are capable of surviving inhumation periods of several hundreds or thousands of years in soil. While the preservation of the bone matrix protein, collagen I, is the prerequisite for a variety of archaeometric approaches, such as radiocarbon dating and the reconstruction of palaeodiet by stable isotope analysis, little is known about both the rate and state of preservation of non‐collagenous proteins. We succeeded in the isolation, electrophoretic separation (SDS‐PAGE, IEF) and immunological detection (radial immunodiffusion, IEF immunoblotting and ELISA) of plasma proteins preserved in archaeological human bones. However, sample preparation and electrophoretic methods had to be adapted to the specific demands of these aged proteins, since they are not only degraded and fragmented but also cross‐linked to other organic components, either indigenous to the bone or to contaminants from the burial environment. Complex decomposition phenomena are responsible for the altered mode of migration of aged proteins through a gel. After isoelectric focusing, the ancient proteins mainly concentrate below pH 4.45 in the pH‐gradient. Thus, highly negatively charged protein components have a better chance of preservation in bone after death. Isoelectric focusing with subsequent immunoblotting of ancient protein samples revealed protein patterns which showed marked charge‐modifications in comparison with those of modern human plasma proteins due to protein degradation (e.g. α₂‐HS‐glycoprotein and α₁‐antitrypsin). Nevertheless, in combination with different immunological analyses, previous results concerning the selective enrichment of α₂‐HS‐glycoprotein in bone compared with other plasma glycoproteins could be confirmed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Metamorphosis of root dentine and age

Transparency in the location of the tooth root apex is a normal phenomenon in human ageing and provides important information for determining a person's age. The illumination of root dentine may prove useful when trying to obtain an approximate estimation of a person's age, particularly when no other data can be obtained. Regression analysis could provide a reasonably reliable means of determining an approximate age of human remains and could be used in archaeological investigations. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Osteology,DNA and Sex Identification: Morphological and Molecular Sex Identifications of Five Neolithic Individuals from Ajvide,Gotland

Sex identifications are crucial for the understanding of the societies we study. To understand an ancient society we need to have some picture of the roles played by males and females in the society. This knowledge has often been produced by morphological sex identifications in connection with grave goods and burial finds. However, if a morphological sex identification is to be fully trusted, the human remains need to be fairly well preserved. There is also a problem in the fact that morphological traits identified in a modern material are applied on an ancient material. There is a growing difference with time and geographical distance. An alternative to morphological identification is molecular identification based on the presence or absence of a Y chromosome, but such identification has its problems too: the risk of contamination and the fact that the absence of proof is not a good female indicator. In this work we have tried to compare morphological and molecular identifications of five Neolithic individuals from the Ajvide site at Gotland in the Baltic sea. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

浙江宁波象山“小白礁I号”清代沉船树种鉴定和用材分析

"小白礁I号"清代沉船遗址位于浙江省宁波市象山县石浦镇东南约26海里的渔山列岛海域,于2008年首次发现,计划于2014年将沉船船体发掘出水。为了从多方面了解"小白礁I号"沉船的特点,考察其建造地点及造船工艺方面的有关问题,制定出水船体保护方案,为此,分别从龙骨、肋骨、隔舱板、船底板等多个部位对船体木材采样进行了种属鉴定。种属鉴定结果表明,"小白礁I号"沉船船体所用木材多为龙脑香科、马鞭草科和山榄科等阔叶硬材,且多产于东南亚热带地区而在我国较少分布,有别于我国以往考古发现的古船。"小白礁I号"沉船用材及保存状况的了解为船体发掘出水后的保护修复工作创造了非常有利的条件。