Pharmacy as a means of propagating the Lutherian doctrine of justification

Pharmacy serving to propagate the Lutherian doctrine of justification: "Christus as a pharmacist" is an interconfessional, but confessionally differentiated symbolic motif (Sinnbildmotiv) of Christian folklore art in German-speaking countries. The article investigates the sociocultural conditions and prerequisites (German bible translation, religion and confession, piety, pharmacy, chymiatry, chemistry, apothecary training and status) for transfering the old metaphor and idea of Christ as a physician to the new vision of Christ as a apothecary who prepares and dispenses his heavenly medicine all by himself. In the early 17th century (especially in the 1610's) these requirements were fulfilled, so that the oldest known witness to this motif transfer (picturing the so-called Heilandsruf of Matthew 11, 28), a genre picture of 1619, will be the first pictural version of this motif in general. It was created by the protestant Painter Mich(a)el Herr of Nuremberg. In the abstract and reduced form of a devotional picture this motif then became widespread in churches and vicarages, in monasteries and their apothecaries as well as in private houses (with small altars: Herrgottswinkel). The oldest yet known examples are works from around 1630. For the first time during the Thirty Year's War, it served in this form for propagating the Lutherian justification doctrine (now referring to Jesaja 55, 1), saying that the belief in Christ is enough to be released from all sins (sola fide). Around 1650, as a reaction to that, a catholic version of the devotional picture was created, claiming and picturing that in contrast eucharist is the highest and real, healing medium' of Christ to redemption. All pictures of this version avoid quoting Jesaja 55, 1, whereas all protestant pictures quote this verse from the Bible word-for-word.     

Die zweite Welle der Wiederaneignung des Corpus Aristotelicum in der frühen Neuzeit: die ethische und politische Tradition. Ein Forschungsbericht

This paper presents a general view over the second reception of Aristotle's writings beginning after the first invasion of Western crusaders in Constantinople in 1204 and enforced after the fall of the Byzantine capital in 1453. After the turn of the century we observe a widespread commentary tradition of Aristotle's writings, particularily of his Ethics and Politics. Philipp Melanchthon became the leading figure in these ethical and political discussions. More than 53 of his works relating this which were printed within the 16^th century are known.     

Technology Transfer at the Periphery of the Mycenaean World: The Cases of Mycenaean Pottery Found in Central Macedonia (Greece) and the Plain of Sybaris (Italy)*

The study of technology transfer in pottery production to the periphery of the Mycenaean world has been addressed by considering two different areas, southern Italy and central Macedonia. Technological features such as ceramic paste, decoration and firing have been determined for different ceramic groups established according to provenance criteria. The studies of technology and provenance have been performed following an archaeometric approach, using neutron activation analysis, petrographic analysis, X‐ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The results have revealed the existence of two different models. On the one hand, southern Italy seems to exhibit a more organized pottery production, which follows a Mycenaean‐like technology, while in central Macedonia production is probably more varied, being based in part on the technology of the local tradition.     

Multitemporal analysis for preservation of obsidian sources from Melka Kunture (Ethiopia): integration of fieldwork activities,digital aerial photogrammetry and multispectral stereo-IKONOS II analysis

An integrated analysis of recent satellite imageries and dated aerial photos demonstrated to be a good investigation tool (Gallo et al., 2009) for the identification of new sites and for the assessment of landscape changes of wide archaeological areas in Ethiopia.     

A Presumed Hydraulic Apparatus for the Transport of Live Fish,Found on the Roman Wreck at Grado,Italy

The Roman wreck found off Grado, not far from the city of Aquileia in the north Adriatic Sea, was recovered in 1999. The ship carried various kinds of amphoras with processed fish. A lead pipe, inserted in the hull near the keel, is curious evidence which the authors try to explain. The pipe could be connected to a piston‐pump to suck water. A theoretical reconstruction demonstrates how this apparatus could work and that it could be used to feed a tank to allow trading in live fish over a long distance. © 2011 The Authors     

Fluid dynamics and fluid‐structural relationships in the Red Lake mine trend,Red Lake greenstone belt,Ontario, Canada

The Red Lake mine trend, a deformation zone in the Archean Red Lake greenstone belt that hosts the world‐class Campbell‐Red Lake gold deposit, is characterized by abundant foliation‐parallel iron‐carbonate ± quartz veins with banded colloform‐crustiform structures and cockade breccias overprinted by silicification and gold mineralization. There is an apparent incompatibility between the cavity‐fill structures of the veins and breccias (typically developed at shallow crustal depths) and the upper greenschist to lower amphibole facies metamorphic conditions recorded in the host rocks (indicating relatively deep environments). This, together with the development of veins along the foliation plane, represents an enigmatic problem that may be related to the interplay between fluid dynamics and stress field. We approach this problem through systematic study of fluid inclusion planes (FIPs) in the vein minerals, including the orientations of the FIPs and the pressure–temperature conditions inferred from fluid inclusion microthermometry. We find that fluid inclusions in the main stage vein minerals (pregold mineralization ankerite and quartz and syn‐ore quartz) are predominantly carbonic without a visible aqueous phase, whereas many inclusions in the postore stage contain an aqueous phase. Most FIPs are subvertical, and many are subparallel to the foliation. High fluid pressure coupled with the high wetting angles of the water‐poor, carbonic fluids may have been responsible for the abundance of brittle deformation features. The development of subvertical FIPs is interpreted to indicate episodic switching of the maximum principal compressive stress (σ₁) from subhorizontal (perpendicular to the foliation) to subvertical (parallel to the foliation) orientation. The subvertical σ₁ is favorable for the formation of foliation‐parallel veins, as fractures are preferentially opened along the foliation in such a stress regime, the origin of which may be linked to the fluid source.     

ASSESSING NATURAL CLAY COMPOSITION IN THE VALLEY OF OAXACA AS A BASIS FOR CERAMIC PROVENANCE STUDIES

The Oaxaca Clay Survey was initiated to provide baseline data on clay composition within the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, to assist in provenance determination of prehistoric ceramics. Natural clays were sampled from 135 locations throughout the valley, and analysed using INAA in combination with ceramic petrography. Observed geographical trends in trace‐element and mineralogical composition confirm that while parent material (surficial geology) strongly affects clay composition, a continuum of variation exists within the valley. The study develops and tests a continuous spatial model of clay composition that provides greater resolution in ceramic sourcing than bedrock alone. By establishing a regional framework for Oaxaca Valley clays, the survey will support significant advances in our understanding of pottery production and exchange within the valley, and provide a more robust means for monitoring exchange between the valley and neighbouring regions.     

NO STONE UNBURNED: A COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS OF OBSIDIAN MICRODEBITAGE BY LASER ABLATION TOF–ICP–MS

Obsidian is an effective material for the study of prehistoric raw material use and exchange, due to the high degree of homogeneity and redundancy of obsidian materials and manufactured objects in the archaeological record. The destructive nature of many analytical techniques often impedes compositional research because of the damage that may occur to priceless archaeological artefacts. The combination of time‐of‐flight (TOF) ICP–MS with a laser ablation sample introduction system provides a highly efficient means of chemically characterizing obsidian. This study shows that sample size limit capabilities of TOF–ICP–MS analysis of obsidian can reach less than 100 μm. Sampling and analysis of microartefacts enables researchers to overcome problems of sampling bias with very little damage to the valuable existing materials within the archaeological record and expands the potential for chemical compositional analyses in archaeology.     

NON‐DESTRUCTIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF OLD SOUTH ARABIAN COINS,FOURTH CENTURY BCE TO THIRD CENTURY CE

Studies on Old South Arabian (OSA) coinage are rare and state‐of‐the‐art materials analysis for them lags far behind that of ancient Greece and Rome. Understandably, numismatists responsible for preserving their collections discourage destructive analyses. We have selected coins of the aesthetically and technically developed Himyarite Royal Raydan series (early first to late second century ce ), so‐called Old and New Style Athenian Imitations, among others to provide a wide spectrum of information on OSA coinage. We used non‐destructive neutron diffraction to ascertain the metal compositions and corrosion products. Density determinations using gas‐pycnometry support these experiments. The results provide detailed information with regard to a small, apparently homogeneous, selection of 10 Himyarite period specimens and first insights into the actual and the original metal compositions of about 90 coins of the three main OSA numismatic groups. The analytical results make clear which OSA coins originally were struck and which ones were cast. The analyses provide not only detailed information concerning the manufacture of the selected representative coins, but also suffice to cast a shadow on the reliability of commonplace macro‐optical classification, which proves often to be inaccurate.     

On the Possible Origins of an Unusual (Mid to Late Holocene) Coastal Deposit,Old Punt Bay,South‐East Australia

An unusual coarse, shelly sedimentary unit is found elevated above present mean sea level in a sheltered pocket embayment at Old Punt Bay in south‐eastern Australia. The coarse sediments, diverse microfauna, and large shelly macrofauna of mixed affinity suggest that the deposit is the result of high‐energy deposition. The deposit was previously thought to have been deposited 1000–1300 cal bp based on one shell dated using ¹⁴C and amino acid racemisation. However, additional ¹⁴C dating indicates a likely age of ～2500 cal bp . Regardless of age constraints, the presence of rock‐encrusting oyster shells and large articulated bivalves, suggests that the depositional event must have been capable of removing and transporting coarse sediments (rock clasts), bivalves, and oysters shells from a variety of seaward environments and depositing them with little abrasion, something storm waves are unlikely to do. The deposit may be tsunamigenic. If a tsunami origin is accepted, the new dating results indicate that it is possibly coeval with a tsunami event previously reported to have affected several other sites along the coast of New South Wales at c. 2900 cal bp . Consequently, this deposit provides evidence for the event at a new site and importantly, a tighter constraint on the likely date of the events occurrence. It further adds weight to the developing catalogue of palaeotsunamis that may have affected the south‐eastern coast of Australia. Regardless of the deposit's origins, if viewed from a coastal planning perspective, this deposit indicates that this part of the coast has experienced large‐scale overwash events in the past that if repeated, would be catastrophic. There are serious implications for risk management.