Roman lead mining in Germany: its origin and development through time deduced from lead isotope provenance studies

High precision lead isotope analysis by Multi Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry was applied to the investigation of more than 240 Roman lead objects from several archaeological sites in Germany, in order to obtain information on the pattern of Roman mining activity and ore processing in the area. Measurements of ore samples from German deposits east (Siegerland, Lahn-Dill, Ems) and west of the Rhine (Eifel, Hunsrueck) were made and supplemented with data from literature to create a data bank of lead isotope ratios of European lead occurrences. Comparing the isotope ratios of lead objects with those from German ore deposits shows that the source of over 85% of the objects is Eifel ore deposits, but that, in the early years, the Romans also imported lead from the Southern Massif Central and later from Britain.     

Moving metals or indigenous mining? Provenancing Scandinavian Bronze Age artefacts by lead isotopes and trace elements

The aim of this study is to further the discussion as to whether copper was extracted locally or imported to Sweden during the Bronze Age or if both of these practices could have coexisted. For this purpose, we have carried out lead isotope and chemical analyses of 33 bronze items, dated between 1600BC and 700BC. Among these are the famous Fröslunda shields and the large scrap hoard from Bräckan and other items from three regions in southern Sweden which are also renowned for their richness in copper ores. It is obvious from a comparison that the element and lead isotope compositions of the studied bronze items diverge greatly from those of spatially associated copper ores. Nor is there any good resemblance with other ores from Scandinavia, and it is concluded that the copper in these items must have been imported from elsewhere. The results furthermore indicate that there are variations in metal supply that are related to chronology, in agreement with other artefacts from Scandinavia as well as from other parts of Europe. Altogether these circumstances open up for a discussion regarding Scandinavia’s role in the maritime networks during the Bronze Age.     

The impact of mining activities on the environment reflected by pollen,charcoal and geochemical analyses

This article presents results of a multi-proxy study of a fen deposit in the former mining district of Falkenstein near Schwaz in the Tyrol, Austria. The aim of the study in the framework of the special research program HiMAT (The History of Mining Activities in the Tyrol and Adjacent Areas – Impact on Environment & Human Societies) was to disclose the ecological impact of mining in pollen and heavy metal diagrams and to create a model combining the changes in palaeoecological proxies with historical evidences for mining. The application of this palaeoecological–historical model to prehistoric times allowed us to reconstruct the impact of mining and metallurgic activities in the surroundings of the fen during the last millennia. The results of stratigraphy, radiocarbon dating, LOI, pollen and micro-charcoal analyses as well as geochemical analyses of scandium, lead and lead isotopes validated by historical and archaeological data are hereby presented.     

Lead pigments and related tools at Akrotiri,Thera, Greece. Provenance and application techniques

This paper refers to an investigation of finds that are associated with the raw materials and tools for the preparation or use of lead pigments at Akrotiri on Thera, Greece, during the Early, Middle and Late Cycladic Bronze Age (c. 3000–1600 BC). For the detection and the preliminary characterisation of remains of pigments that were found on stone tools, the in situ application of X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy proved to be invaluable. In order to identify the chemical composition of the pigments and to investigate their provenance from a geological perspective, quantitative X-Ray Diffraction analysis was conducted. A thorough visual macro and microscopic examination of the morphology of the materials permitted the determination of physical features (colour, homogeneity, grain size) as indicators of their nature or degree of processing. Based on the results of these analyses, the traces of lead oxides that were detected on the stone tools are associated with specific collections of litharge items discovered at the settlement of Akrotiri, and probably provide evidence of their earliest use in preparing pigments.     

Historical signature of Roman mining activities in the Bidasoa estuary (Basque Country,northern Spain): an integrated micropalaeontological,geochemical and archaeological approach

This work presents an integrated micropalaeontological (foraminiferal content), geochemical (Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, and Al, Pb isotope ratios, radiocarbon dating) and archaeological approach to the environmental impact caused by Roman mining in the Bidasoa estuary (northern Spain). Sediments collected in the ancient Roman port of Irun represent a typical infilling sequence, reflecting a progressive isolation from the estuarine environment. They exhibit elevated contents of Pb, clearly higher than those recommended nowadays for acceptable sediment quality. Isotope composition confirms exploitation of local galenas as the main source for this metal. Results from a borehole (25 m long) reveal that Pb pollution extended also to the adjacent estuarine area. The beginning of Roman mining activities is recorded by a marked increase in Pb concentrations. However, the maximum value appears later in time (after 660 cal AD). Although this enrichment could be related to the reworking upstreams of previously polluted materials, recently obtained archaeological data suggest that episodes of historically non-documented mining activities could have taken place in the surrounding area after Roman times.     

在硫代硫酸钠—醋酸铅双组分体系中黄铜器表面着色的动力学研究

通过调整流代硫酸钠一醋酸铅双组分试液的不同浓度比以及控制着色温度、试液酸度和着色时间,确定黄铜试样表面着以不同颜色的条件。用x射线衍射方法测定不同颜色表面膜的成分,并对膜形成的动力学进行了探讨．为研究黄铜着色提供了一种新的方法。     

山东济南刘家庄遗址商代青铜器科学分析研究

山东济南刘家庄遗址发掘出土一批带有铭文族徽的商代青铜器,其形制多与殷墟同类器物极为相似,表明晚商时期刘家庄地区居住着一支与商都殷墟有密切关系的氏族。针对该遗址出土动植物遗存、铜器铅同位素等方面已有学者开展了相关研究,取得了一定的研究成果。但总体上看,针对这批青铜器制作工艺、合金技术及矿料特征等科技分析数据偏少,与商都殷墟遗存的关系尚待进一步讨论分析。 本研究选取该遗址三座墓葬中29件青铜器(56个样品)为研究对象,利用扫描电镜及能谱仪、金相显微镜、VG Elemental型多接收电感耦合等离子体质谱仪和利曼Prodigy电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱仪,从青铜器合金组成、金相组织、铅同位素比值及特征微量元素等方面采集数据加以分析,再结合器物形制等考古学资料进行综合研究。 结果表明,刘家庄青铜器主要为铸造成型,合金组成为铅锡青铜、锡青铜、铅青铜、纯铜及铅砷青铜。大部分青铜器金相组织以α固溶体为基体,呈树枝状偏析,枝晶间分布(α+δ)共析体,部分共析体完全腐蚀,Pb相呈颗粒状零散分布或者完全腐蚀,局部区域如孔洞、枝干与缝隙间析出不规则形状铜晶粒。少数器物金相组织内部存在滑移线,推测器物可能经过铸后冷加工。铅同位素比值显示,此批青铜器高放射成因铅占比较高,与殷墟二、三期含高放射成因铅器物数据分布范围相对吻合,与殷墟一期、殷墟四期分布范围稍有差异。微量元素总体趋势以高含量Bi、As、Ag元素为特征,结果与殷墟青铜器微量元素分布模式相较接近。综合对比发现,刘家庄青铜器似乎与殷墟青铜器的主体原料相同。从器型上看,刘家庄青铜鼎、簋、觚形制与纹饰风格等,多与安阳殷墟青铜器尤其是与殷墟二期、三期保持较高的相关性。 本研究表明晚商时期海岱地区与殷墟中原地区交流密切,为商晚期青铜器生产来源与流通关系提供了新的证据。同时,该研究深化了对刘家庄商代青铜器本身的认识,补充完善了济南刘家庄青铜器科技分析内容及考古学研究信息,为深入了解商代时期海岱地区与殷墟之间的关系提供一个新的视角。     

海昏侯墓出土马蹄金、麟趾金内嵌物的分析研究

南昌西汉海昏侯墓发掘出土了数量较多的马蹄金,为汉代黄金货币的研究工作提供了宝贵资料,出土马蹄金内均存在镶嵌物,大部分腐蚀严重。结合偏光显微分析、背散射扫描电镜能谱、红外光谱、X射线衍射光谱对海昏侯墓主棺头箱出土的部分马蹄金内嵌物进行分析研究,依据分析结果将马蹄金内嵌物分为透闪石软玉、蛋白石、铅钡玻璃和疑似高铅玻璃4种类型。其中,铅钡玻璃基本保留玻璃态,腐蚀产物随着埋藏环境的变化存在二次结晶现象,腐蚀的最终产物是碳酸铅;疑似高铅玻璃表现出完全不同的腐蚀状态,外层硅质成分较高形成较为致密的壳状结构,内部碳酸铅以葡萄状填充在少量的硅质成分中。研究结果可为后续的保护处理与马蹄金、麟趾金的复制工作提供理论支持。     

基于铅同位素比值的古代矿料混合模型分析法

为深入研究古代青铜器示踪矿料来源中矿料混合问题,通过铅同位素研究数据构建矿料混合模型,从理论上探讨满足条件的青铜器数据样本其矿料混合的情况。基于模型,通过对铅同位素数据的处理,不仅能够匹配相应的矿料混合模式,而且可为器物分类提供依据。此外,还可计算出相应的铜料中表观含铅量,为相关研究提供参考依据。     

甘肃泾川出土5件佛教造像彩绘分析及相关研究

运用显微观察、荧光拍照、偏光显微镜、X射线荧光光谱、X射线衍射及扫描电镜能谱分析手段,对#87北魏造像碑、#99隋代佛头、#54宋代残破佛头和2件泥塑佛像残块表面彩绘进行研究。结果显示,北魏和隋代造像红色为朱砂,绿色为石绿,白色为方解石;隋代造像面部肉色为硫酸铅和朱砂的混合物,眼黑为炭黑;宋代造像表面红色为铁红,白色为方解石;泥塑残块#1表面蓝色为石青和石绿的混合物,#2表面为朱砂,判断其制作年代不晚于唐代中期。白灰层主要成分为碳酸钙,并具有亮白色荧光反应,与碳酸钙粉末混合有机胶制成白灰层的荧光反应一致,判断古代样品白灰层中可能存在有机胶结质。在元素分析过程中,铅(Pb)一直存在,而在物相分析中并没有发现Pb的化合物。同样问题在早期关中出土墓葬壁画分析中同样存在,是否与彩绘工艺本身有关,值得引起关注。