Microanalytical study of copper ores from the Chalcolithic settlement of São Pedro (Portugal): Copper production in the south-western Iberian Peninsula

Copper ores recovered at the third millennium bce settlement of São Pedro, Portugal, were characterized by micro-Raman spectroscopy, micro-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (micro-EDXRF) and micro-particle-induced X-ray emission spectrometry (micro-PIXE). The collection shows the common presence of secondary copper minerals (malachite, pseudomalachite and libethenite) combined with iron oxyhydroxides (hematite and goethite), while arsenic-rich minerals are absent and, therefore, can be excluded as the source of arsenical copper. Overall, these copper ores suggest a primitive technology involving the exploitation of the superficial zone of ore bodies and reliant on the fortuitous finding of arsenic-rich sources to produce the arsenical copper alloy frequently present among metallic collections of the Iberian Peninsula.     

Smalt production in the Ore Mountains: Characterization of samples related to the production of blue pigment in Bohemia

The study deals with the chemical composition of samples related to the production of a blue pigment/smalt. The samples examined come from the regions of Soví huť and Horní Blatná (north-west Bohemia) dating to the 16th and 17th centuries. These locations are often mentioned in relation to the discoverer of smalt production technology: Christopher Schürer. The aim of the study is to evaluate the chemical composition of samples from both localities as well as with respect to the ores occurring in the given regions. The samples can be divided into two basic groups. The first clearly represents smalt (potassium glass coloured with cobalt), while the second apparently constitutes the samples of the so-called ‘speiss’ (an aluminosilicate mass with metallic compounds). The analysis of the smalt confirmed the representation of minor elements bismuth and nickel (always) and uranium and molybdenum (rarely), which are found in Co ores from the Ore Mountains. The paper is the first to present the composition of actual blue pigment finds originating directly from the production sites, while the available literature has so far only reported the results of analyses of the pigments already used when referring to the Ore Mountains.     

CHARMed PyMca,Part II: An evaluation of interlaboratory reproducibility for ED‐XRF analysis of copper alloys

CHARMed PyMca is a protocol for researchers using energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED‐XRF) who wish to maximize interlaboratory reproducibility of quantitative results from copper alloys found in heritage materials. This paper reports the results of a study evaluating the interlaboratory reproducibility expected when following this protocol. Five institutions participated in this study, using nine tube‐based instruments of seven types. A set of 12 reference materials not used for calibration was analysed according to the protocol. The results show an improvement in reproducibility of between 65% and 83%, depending on the element, in comparison with a similar study carried out in 2010. The protocol allowed the consistent reporting of concentrations for 15 elements, in contrast to only eight elements that were reported in the 2010 study. Finally, the protocol was shown to generate accurate quantitative results with a well‐characterized precision. It is hoped the information presented here can help researchers studying heritage copper alloys to collaborate more effectively and with greater confidence in the reproducibility of their results. It should also aid researchers to make realistic and informed decisions about whether or not the degree of reproducibility that they may expect from ED‐XRF makes the protocol suitable for their specific purposes.     

The Composition of the São Brás Copper Hoard in Relation to the Bell Beaker Metallurgy in the South‐western Iberian Peninsula

A large ceramic vessel was discovered at São Brás (southern Portugal) containing a metallic hoard from the Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age period. These weapons and tools were characterized by microanalytical techniques as being composed of copper with varying arsenic contents (2.2 ± 1.6 wt%) and minor amounts of lead, bismuth and iron. The collection shows a clear association between daggers and copper with a higher arsenic content, which can be explained by the high status of these silvery alloys. Finally, the compositional distribution of the hoard was compared with the metallurgy of the Bell Beaker and non–Bell Beaker communities inhabiting the south‐western Iberian Peninsula.     

略论鸦片战争前后银贵钱贱的原因

清代自乾隆后期开始,银钱比价发生重要变化,始终处于银贵钱贱阶段。特别是鸦片战争前后,不少地区一两白银兑钱二千甚至更多,对民生、经济影响至巨,而对于其中的原因,建国以来多数学者把它归因于鸦片的大量输入导致的白银大量外流。我们认为,这种认识并不全面,导致鸦片战争前银贵钱贱的原因是多方面的,既有鸦片大量输入这个外部因素,也有清代货币体系本身的内部原因。     

Trace element and Pb isotope provenance analyses of native copper in northwestern North America: results of a recent pilot study using INAA,ICP-MS,and LA-MC-ICP-MS

Several indigenous groups in northwestern North America used native copper prior to EuroAmerican contact. The Arctic, Subarctic, and Northwest Coast culture areas all have archaeological finds and geological sources of native copper. The copper-rich region of south-central Alaska and southwestern Yukon has often been credited as the source of archaeological native copper found on the Northwest Coast despite the presence of native copper sources further south. This paper presents the results of a pilot study using INAA, ICP-MS, and LA-MC-ICP-MS to assess the potential for native copper provenance research in Alaska and the Yukon Territory. Discrete native copper sources could be distinguished from one another intra-regionally. Difficulties associated with future native copper provenance research in northwestern North America are discussed.     

论新识的一种周系铸铜工具

周公庙遗址出土的"圆锥体中空器"是一种铸铜工具,该类器物应属"周系"文化因素,其流行时代早于西周早期偏晚阶段.     

河南省镇平县楸树湾古铜矿冶遗址的调查

河南省镇平县楸树湾的古铜矿冶遗址,是在20世纪60年代由河南省有色金属地质勘探三队发现的.1982年由镇平县人民政府公布为镇平县第一批重点文物保护单位.1996年秋由河南省文物考古研究所、南阳市文物研究所和镇平县彭雪枫纪念馆联合对该遗址进行了复查,现将调查概况报告如下.     

The agricultural basis of Umm an-Nar society in the northern Oman peninsula (2500–2000 BC)

This paper argues that the agricultural aspect of the Umm an-Nar economy has been largely ignored by researchers, due to an overemphasis on copper production and trade. This is true at the level of the smallest rural settlements, villages and settlements whose primary focus was agricultural production.
The key social developments of this period have often been explained by linking them to the exploitation of copper ore and its trade with surrounding regions such as Mesopotamia and the Indus. However, this paper will argue — based on quantified pottery analysis — that it is during this time that we see the development, for the first time in the Oman peninsula, of widespread sedentary occupation that was based on small agricultural villages where there is no evidence of copper ore exploitation, thus suggesting that the economic basis of Umm an-Nar society was essentially agricultural.
Furthermore, it will be argued that, through the use of a new survey methodology, it is possible to locate such settlements, even where they have left no traces of monuments, such as tombs or round towers. The methodology allows preliminary comparisons to be made between the intensity of occupation in different periods. The paper also argues that the Umm an-Nar period was one of the most intensive periods of occupation in pre-Islamic history.     

Archaeomagnetic Dating of Pyrotechnological Contexts: a Case Study for Copper Smelting Sites in the Central Timna Valley,Israel

This study is focused on establishing age constraints for several copper slag deposits at the centre of the Timna Valley (Israel) via reconstruction of their ancient geomagnetic intensities as recorded by the individual slag samples at the time of their formation. The results show a correlation between the location of the slag deposits (labelled as individual ‘mounds’ in our survey) and their inferred ages, reflecting varying socio‐economic and political dynamics in the region. While the slag mounds found at the unprotected foothills represent a variety of dates (mostly Early Islamic), the slag mounds on the hilltops are chronologically constrained to the early Iron Age (late 11th to 10th centuries bce ), supporting the idea for a need for protection during this period. Furthermore, in comparing the new data with previous archaeomagnetic studies from Timna, we can assert the existence of simultaneous copper production at the archaeological Sites 30, 30a and 34. This gives further support to the claim of intense smelting in the central Timna Valley during the early Iron Age. Finally, this project demonstrates the potential of archaeomagnetic experiments to provide chronological insights, and their particular advantage in addressing pyrotechnology‐related cases.