Last meals inferred from the possible gut contents of a mummy: A case study from Astana Cemetery,Xinjiang, China*

The gut contents of ancient humans have been proven to be the most direct evidence for palaeodietary study. In the Xinjiang region of north-west China, large numbers of mummies are well preserved owing to the extremely dry environment to be found there. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) combined with multi-archaeobotanical methods, including macrofossil examination, starch grain analysis, phytolith analysis and bran fragments analysis, were applied to investigate the possible gut contents (c.1300 bp by ¹⁴C dating) of a person unearthed at tomb 75TAM601 in Astana Cemetery, which were the public graveyards of the ancient Gaochang people (residents of Turpan, dating from about the third to the ninth centuries ce ), in Turpan, Xinjiang. The result of the FTIR analysis showed that the matrix of the possible gut contents consisted of protein and starch and was characterized as undigested food residue. The white mineral fragments of this sample were from the decomposition products of the skeleton. The microfossil analysis demonstrated that Setaria italica, Panicum miliaceum and Triticum aestivum were the main cereal resources for the last meals eaten by the deceased. Moreover, direct macrofossil evidence also advocates for the importance of the three aforementioned cereal crops and fruits of Cucumis melo and Vitis vinifera in the person's diet.     

Multimethod characterization of terracotta figurines and lime mortar from the elite burials Shoroon Bumbagar I and II,Mongolia

The multi-analytical approach, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy with X-ray (SEM-EDX), was applied to terracotta figurines, mural plaster, and local clay sources coming from two elite burials in Mongolia—Shoroon Bumbagar I and Shoroon Bumbagar II—dated to the second half of the VII century AD. The aims of this study were: (1) by comparing the major composition of body samples with those of the ancient Tang sancai kilns to identify the origin of raw materials; and (2) to track changes in the manufacturing technology. Analysis of CaO, Fe₂O₃, TiO_2, and K₂O, which were crucial for distinguishing the provenance of red bodies, confirmed the local production of terracotta figurines. Furthermore, this study helped us attain a deeper understanding of the Tang sancai at both Shoroon Bumbagar sites, geographically located on both banks of the Tuul River yet separated in time by a few decades; it suggests the movement of two groups of artisans using different technologies to make Tang sancai locally by incorporating local tastes and traditions.     

IDENTIFICATION,PROCESSING AND USE OF RED PIGMENTS (HEMATITE AND CINNABAR) IN THE VALENCIAN EARLY NEOLITHIC (SPAIN)

The results of the first elemental and structural physicochemical analyses (SEM–EDX, TXRF, XRD, FTIR, GC and EDXRF) of Early Neolithic red pigment samples from the region of Valencia confirm one of the earliest uses of cinnabar (HgS) in Spain (5300 to 5000 cal bc ). They also inform on the storage of massive quantities of hematite and the development of specific technologies of hematite‐based paint production and use. The samples were recovered at the three most significant Early Neolithic sites of the Mediterranean coast of Spain: Cova de l'Or (Beniarrés, Alacant), Cova de la Sarsa (Bocairent, Valencia) and Cova Fosca (Vall d'Ebo, Valencia), which together have provided the most important European collection of Cardial ceramic ware (chronoculturally diagnostic of the Early Neolithic).     

New parameters for the characterization of diagenetic alterations and heat-induced changes of fossil bone mineral using Fourier transform infrared spectrometry

Diagenetic alteration may limit the potential use of the biogenic composition of fossil bone as a reliable source of information for dietary, environmental and climatic reconstructions. One of the key parameters used to determine the state of preservation of fossil remains is their crystallinity. This can be evaluated by means of infrared spectroscopy, measuring the “splitting factor” (IRSF). However, the crystallinity may fail to describe the extent of chemical and mineralogical changes occurring during fossilization, and cannot be used alone as a reliable indicator of biogenic signal preservation.     

Preservation assessment of Miocene–Pliocene tooth enamel from Tugen Hills (Kenyan Rift Valley) through FTIR,chemical and stable-isotope analyses

We investigated fossil tooth enamel of mammals and crocodiles from two Mio-Pliocene East-African formations (Lukeino and Mabaget Fms) using infrared spectroscopy and chemical and stable-isotope analyses. Infrared spectra indicate that the fossil enamel contains biological apatite (bioapatite), without significant secondary carbonate contaminations. Several empirical infrared indexes were used to analyze the crystal–chemical characteristics of enamel. Fossil enamel has less organic matter, water and structural carbonate of apatite than modern enamel with which it was compared. Fossil apatite has a better crystallinity than bioapatite. The calcium/phosphorus mass ratio and the fluorine content of fossil apatite show intermediate values between bioapatite and geological fluorapatite. The samples also display significant crystal-chemical variations, depending on the vertebrate group (mammals vs. reptiles) and the taphonomic context (Lukeino Fm vs. Mabaget Fm). In spite of these changes, no relationship was observed between the chemical contents (carbonate and fluorine) and the stable-isotope ratios of carbonate (δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O) in fossil enamel. Preservation of the palaeoenvironmental signals is strongly supported by the fact that the stable-isotope composition of the three investigated fossil mammalian taxa (deinotheres, equids and hippos) is consistent with their ecological features. For instance, typical C₃- and C₄-plant isotope compositions are reflected in the deinotheres and equids, respectively, and amphibious hippos display lower δ¹⁸O values than terrestrial herbivores, as expected.     

Adipocere Inside Nineteenth Century Femora: The Effect of Grave Conditions.

Adipocere has, infrequently, been reported from archaeological contexts normally on the external surface of bodies. In contrast to those cases, this study focuses on a white, powdery and greasy substance found inside two right human femora during sampling. These samples were obtained from two identified individuals buried in the late 19th century, who were exhumed from a rock‐cut and a brick‐lined grave in a steeply sloping graveyard with wet soil conditions. Both individuals were buried in coffins. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to test the composition of the substances, and both were found to conform to the spectrum of adipocere. This is likely to be a breakdown product of the fats in bone marrow in an anaerobic, moist environment mediated by bacteria. None of the other individuals (n = 6) buried in similar graves displayed evidence of adipocere; this includes those whose femora were in a similar state of preservation (n = 4). Contemporaneous data on precipitation for the month of burials do not highlight any obvious trends, but one of the individuals was found in a water‐logged grave. The similar preservation of other femora buried in brick‐lined graves highlights the interplay of multiple factors in the formation and degradation of adipocere. More importantly, it demonstrates differential preservation, which may impact on DNA and other biomolecular research. Furthermore, this adds to the limited data currently available on adipocere found in archaeological contexts. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Re-examining the chemical evaluation of diagenesis in human bone apatite

Isotopic analysis of human bone is becoming an increasingly important tool for the archaeologist in divining past life-ways. The isotopic ratios within bone are often assumed to be preserved as in life, but diagenetic change can alter the ratios, invalidating the results of isotopic analysis. Diagenesis can be evaluated in a number of ways, but most often spectroscopic techniques are utilised as the most efficient and easiest to understand methods for the archaeologist. Many isotopic studies do not report the possibility of diagenetic change, and if it is reported it has often been quantified using a single method of chemical analysis, FTIR spectroscopy. This study set out to test the value of FTIR analysis using human remains from the prehistoric site of Ban Non Wat, Northeast Thailand, and to compare the results with the non-destructive technique of FT-Raman spectroscopy. The study shows that FTIR spectroscopic analysis gives far less detail on the condition of bone than Raman spectroscopy, which does not merely indicate recrystallisation has occurred, but also shows clearly whether or not collagen is present, allows identification of ionic substitions which have occurred and identification of secondary minerals which have formed. Raman spectroscopy, combined with LA-ICP-MS analysis also revealed that soil composition and groundwater flow are the conditions which most affect diagenesis at Ban Non Wat.     

The application of histomorphometry and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy to the analysis of early Anglo-Saxon burned bone

Macroscopic examination, histomorphometry and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) are applied to the analysis of burned bones from the early Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Elsham in Lincolnshire, UK. These methods were undertaken to gain a greater understanding of pyre conditions from an archaeological context and the effects of burning on bone microstructure. Sixteen samples were employed for thin-section analysis while eight samples were used with FTIR. The results suggest that these methods correspond well with macroscopic examination, though anomalies did occur. The techniques employed in this paper have demonstrated that the temperatures reached on the funerary pyres at Elsham ranged from 600 °C to over 900 °C under oxidizing conditions.     

In search of the optimum Raman/IR signatures of potential ingredients used in San/Bushman rock art paint

Vibrational spectroscopy (Raman and FTIR) has played an important role in identifying pigments, substrata and deterioration products in rock art studies worldwide: in the laboratory and on-site. However, the detection of organic binders and carrying agents has so far been scarce and the quality of many spectra recorded on-site inadequate. In this study, possible pigments (charcoal, ochre, raptor faeces, thermally treated ostrich egg shell, etc.), binders (fat, egg, blood) and carrying agents (saliva, gall, egg, water) were selected based on artistic considerations and analysed with FTIR and Raman (514.6 and 785 nm excitation, both available in mobile instruments) spectroscopy in order to determine usable marker bands for each ingredient. The resultant marker bands were then used to analyse five ten year old San replica paints. It was found that FTIR spectroscopy is very efficient to identify organic compounds as there is no fluorescence but the broadness of the bands inhibits the exact assignment of many ingredients. A high fluorescence background experienced for many natural products prevented the recording of Raman spectra for all ingredients, in many instances though the sharp peaks usually associated with Raman spectra make identification easier than with FTIR spectroscopy. Most of the ingredients in the paints could be identified, but it is clear that better results are obtained when more that one technique is used.     

An early Iron Age assemblage of faience beads from Ashkelon,Israel: chemical composition and manufacturing process

The microstructure and chemical composition of eight faience beads from an early Iron Age (12th century BCE) assemblage found in the ancient city port of Ashkelon (Israel) are determined by means of FTIR spectrometry, pXRF, microRaman and SEM-EDS analysis. The results are compared with published data of Egyptian and Near Eastern artifacts. Each sample exhibits a hue which is obtained by adding a specific colorant to the glazing mixture. A new gray chalcopyrite-manganese-based colorant was identified. Cementation glazing was most likely used in the manufacturing process of the specimens analyzed, except for the blue bead, which is an Egyptian blue frit. The results suggest that these objects represent a unique assemblage, quite different from contemporary Egyptian and Near Eastern materials, and provide new information regarding the Iron Age faience evidence in the southern Levant.