'Nothing Could Exceed the Badness of His Character Even in This Bad Age'

Initially the model for the speakership of the US house of representatives could not but be drawn from Westminster, though the occupants of the chair in the Commons around the time of independence were not impressive. Not however till Henry Clay's election in 1812 was the American Speaker transformed into a partisan, politically-active leader of the House. The contemporary Commons Speaker, Manners Sutton, though he failed to be re-elected to the chair on political grounds, was not a party leader. Between Clay and the civil war the intensity of party conflict obscured the role of the Speaker, and minorities flourished. Speaker Reed in the 1880s believed in the rights of the majority and used the authority of the chair to promote them. He ended the practice of members delaying business by refusing to answer a roll-call though present, and he developed special rules to accelerate the progress of bills. About the same time, Speaker Brand in the Commons, in the face of Irish obstructionism, also reasserted the rights of the majority by introducing the closure, to which guillotines were later added. Reed's authoritarianism broke in the hands of Speaker Cannon in 1909–10 as progressive members of his party rebelled. By then the Commons speakership had entered a period of complete political neutrality. Speakers O'Neill and Gingrich in the last quarter of the 20th century regained much of the power and authority which Cannon's speakership had lost.     

故宫博物院旧藏漆器文物中漆灰材质的科学研究

漆灰的修复是漆器文物修复工作的重要组成部分。为揭示故宫博物院旧藏漆器3种典型漆灰的材料构成及特点,以及为漆器修复工作提供科技支持,研究结合X射线荧光光谱、微区X射线衍射、红外光谱、纤维显微镜观测、热裂解-气相色谱/质谱联用等技术,综合分析了3种典型漆灰所含无机及有机原材料。研究结果表明：明代古梅花蕉叶式琴漆灰所用无机材料是动物角灰或骨灰及少量黏土,胶结材料则由中国大漆及少量植物油组成;清代黑漆描金大宝座漆灰的无机材料为含有方解石的黏土,胶结材料为熟桐油、猪血的混合物,此外,样品中还含有麻类纤维,为宝座木胎与漆灰层之间所裱麻布,宝座漆灰不但能提供平整髹漆表面,而且还对麻布有加固定型作用;清代黑漆地填金字张廷玉书圣训天伦对联漆灰的无机材料为黏土,胶结材料则为熟桐油、猪血的混合物。研究所用分析方法体系可实现漆灰原材料,特别是有机胶结材料的准确识别。3种典型漆灰的选材特点与中国古代漆器,特别是明清时期家具、器物制作用料传统相吻合,研究结果可直接应用于漆器文物修复方案的制定。     

Long-term clay raw material selection and use in the region of Classical/Hellenistic to Early Byzantine Sagalassos (SW Turkey)

A provenance study was carried out on coarse ceramics from the Classical/Hellenistic to Mid-Byzantine city of Sagalassos, SW Turkey. The ceramics were sampled from the excavations of the city, and clay raw materials were sampled throughout its ancient territory. Used techniques were optical microscopy and electron microprobe analysis on thin sections, geochemical analysis (fusion ICP/MS and mineralogical analysis (X-ray diffraction). The geochemical/mineralogical diversity in the ceramics is not as wide as for the clay raw materials. It seems that even at the restricted scale of this study, the resources were limited to the area around the ancient site. The differences between the ceramics are likely due to the use of different ophiolitic clay bodies being exploited for their production.     

上海青龙镇唐代铸造作坊遗址出土陶范的分析研究

上海青龙镇相传始建于公元746年,是上海地区最早的对外贸易重镇。2012年青龙镇的考古发掘中发现了 4座熔炉以及熔炉周围堆积的大量陶范、炉渣等,是上海地区首次发现的冶铸作坊遗址,遗址使用的主要年代是唐代晚期。为了解青龙镇唐代铸造作坊遗址出土陶范的制作技术,对遗址出土的陶范进行分析研究,以期揭示唐代青龙镇铸造作坊的制范技术。对陶范型腔面上残留的附着物分析主要元素是铁,表明陶范用于铸造铁器。经分析遗址中出土的陶范由三层组成:面层、背层和稻壳泥层。面层厚约1～2 mm,采用细颗粒泥料制作,致密,在铸造铁器时能确保陶范承受高温液态金属的充型压力,并得到表面光洁的铸件。背层厚约4～7 mm,该层羼入了粗颗粒物,这些羼和料可以减少陶范在干燥收缩和焙烧过程中的收缩变形。稻壳泥层厚约11～16 mm,该层羼入了一定量粗颗粒物,并羼入了大量的稻谷壳,陶范焙烧时谷壳烧失,在陶范上留下了大量的孔隙,便于铸造时型腔中气体的排出。三种不同的材质起到不同的作用,以保证成功铸造出铁器。在冶铸作坊废弃后在其上建造的一口水井内发现的铁釜、铁提梁鼎的形状与遗址中出土陶范所铸器物的形状吻合,应为该遗址所铸造器物。     

Cyclic loading of an idealized clay‐filled fault: comparing hydraulic flow in two clay gouges

The flow of water along discontinuities, such as fractures or faults, is of paramount importance in understanding the hydrogeology of many geological settings. An experimental study was undertaken comprising two experiments on a 30° slip‐plane filled with kaolinite or Ball Clay gouge using a bespoke Angled Shear Rig (ASR). The gouge was initially loaded in equal step changes in vertical stress, followed by unloading of the sample in similar equal steps. This was followed by reloading to a new maximum stress, followed by unloading; the test history was therefore load‐unload‐reload‐unload (LURU). The transmissivity of the kaolinite and Ball Clay gouge showed a power‐law relationship with vertical stress. The LURU history showed considerable hysteresis, with flow effectively unchanged during unloading, even when vertical stress was close to zero. Reloading resulted in flow similar to that seen during unloading suggesting that the unloading‐reloading path is similar to the rebound‐reconsolidation line in classic soil mechanics. These observations show the importance of stress history on fracture flow; consideration of just the current stress acting upon a fracture may result in inaccuracies of predicted hydraulic flow. Once a new stress maximum was achieved the transmissivity of the fracture continued to reduce. No significant variation was seen in the flow response of kaolinite and Ball Clay gouge suggesting that the inclusion of illite and quartz did not have a significant influence on the form of the relationship between stress and flow, i.e. both described by a power‐law.     

天梯山石窟9窟彩塑与壁画地仗矿物 及颜料分析

天梯山石窟,即北凉石窟,在国内史学界誉为中国古代石窟鼻祖。据考证,9窟彩塑与壁画制作始于唐代,后经历代多次重绘。针对目前彩塑与壁画的保存现状及需要修复的状况,本研究运用现代分析仪器与技术,对9窟现存的彩塑、壁画进行了科学分析。其中,对彩塑及壁画地仗土层矿物进行了X射线衍射分析,对重层彩绘颜料进行了X射线衍射、X射线荧光分析;另外,对清理彩塑地仗时发现的植物茎秆及附属物,采用偏光显微分析技术进行了材质鉴定。分析和鉴定结果表明:9窟现存彩塑及壁画地仗土层具有相同的矿物组成,基本包括石英、长石(斜长石、少量的K-长石)、云母(白云母、绿泥石、伊利石、斜绿泥石)、方解石、少量石膏,并确定植物茎秆材质为稻草;在使用的彩绘中,黑色为墨,红色颜料有朱砂、铅丹和铁红,蓝色颜料为石青,白色颜料以方解石为主,有少量的石膏。本结果可为后期天梯山石窟的全面复原修复提供参考资料。     

独乐寺观音阁辽代十一面观音像的材质分析

独乐寺观音阁内十一面观音像保存至今,泥胎存在裂隙、空鼓、脱落等病害。利用超景深三维显微镜、X射线衍射分析(XRD)、激光粒度分布仪等对观音像泥胎进行了材质分析。通过控制砂、纤维含量,分析泥塑试样的收缩性,并探索纤维含量对泥胎收缩性的影响规律。结果表明:观音像泥胎的制作原料取自当地,其中土颗粒粒径多在5~70 μm之间,约占总量的79.5%;主要矿物成分为石英和伊利石,还有部分钠长石和钾长石,以及少量的高岭石。粗泥层含砂量约为35%,麦草(麦秆及麦壳混合物)含量约6%~9%,长度大多在2 cm以下;细泥层含砂量约为30%,麻丝含量约2.1%,长度大多集中在2 cm。麦草和麻丝的加入对泥胎的收缩均能起到抑制作用。随着麦草含量的增加,抑制作用呈现先增大后减小的趋势,掺和6%的麦草抑制作用最好;添加麻丝可使试样的最终线缩率显著减小,但麻丝的多少对线缩率的减小幅度影响不大。观音像泥胎的原纤维配比就有很好的抑制收缩效果。本次研究获得了十一面观音像泥胎的材料组成信息,得出了纤维占比对泥胎收缩性的影响,为十一面观音像的修复与保护提供了参考。     

宜兴潢潼土墩墓群发掘报告

宜兴潢潼土墩墓群是太湖西部土墩墓群的重要组成部分,此次发掘的3座土墩墓均有保存完好的石床,出土的一批原始青瓷和印纹硬陶器质量很高,较为精美,并出土了同时代土墩墓中较为少见的青铜矛。这对江南土墩墓的研究提供了新资料。     

土质对可溶盐危害影响的关系探究——以秦陵百戏俑坑为例

为探讨不同遗址土质对可溶盐危害影响的关系,以秦陵百戏俑坑为对象,对百戏俑坑包括温湿度等赋存环境、含水率、含盐种类、含盐量、土质及本体等进行调查分析。根据调查结果选取密度和粘粒含量两个影响土质的重要因素,制作不同密度及不同粘粒含量的模拟块进行温湿度循环实验,探讨这两个因素对遗址盐害的影响。从实验结果中得知,当这两个变量发生变化时,土块盐害程度呈现随着密度和粘粒含量的增大呈现先下降后升高,最后降低的趋势。并将实验得出的盐害规律与百戏俑坑土质对照,评估与讨论百戏俑坑的盐害程度及盐害风险。     

“The true principles of government”: William Henry Harrison and the Whig counter-revolution

Beyond his military exploits on the frontier, William Henry Harrison is best remembered as the president who died a month after taking office. Discussions of his presidency frequently focus on the ephemeral, such as the fatal illness he contracted while delivering his inaugural address – the longest ever – in the bitter cold. The address itself, one of the most unusual state papers in U.S. history, has largely escaped the serious notice of historians, political scientists, and legal scholars. Harrison proposed nothing short of a constitutional revolution that would have reduced the chief executive to a mere figurehead. This paper explores the many peculiarities of Harrison's address, including the Whig theory of the presidency, a radical and overlooked innovation that aimed to fundamentally alter the role of the chief executive in the constitutional order. A close reading of Harrison's inaugural and brief tenure as president also reveals a number of factual errors and interpretative missteps made by leading scholars of the period.