The Middle Stone Age of West Turkana,Kenya

Abstract

Research on the origins of Homo sapiens and the development of our species’ unique behavior is focused on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) period in Africa (in comparison with the European Upper Palaeolithic). Although archaeological and paleontological fieldwork in the Turkana Basin in northwestern Kenya has contributed greatly to our understanding of human evolution in Africa, the Basin's MSA archaeological record remains poorly known. We report on a reconnaissance of MSA sites in West Turkana, Kenya, which included known archaeological/paleoanthropological localities at Eliye Springs and Kabua Waterhole (Kadokorinyang). A newly-discovered site, Nakechichok 1 (GdJh 5), preserves MSA tools stratified beneath Late Stone Age assemblages. The MSA lithic artifacts from Nakechichok 1 differ from those known from other MSA localities in nearby regions, and, they expand the known scope of MSA variability in the Turkana Basin, demonstrating that the MSA is not “missing” in this region, but just hard to find.     

Protecting a Cemetery in Saqqara: Site Works 1975–2009

Abstract

This article considers the varied threats to Ancient Egyptian architectural remains that have been exposed by modern excavation. A number of possible measures that counter such threats are outlined, together with the practical difficulties facing the architectural conservator working in this context. The approach taken at the New Kingdom Necropolis in Saqqara — a group of elite tombs constructed c. 1350–1250 BC — during the post-excavation phase is detailed, with an emphasis on the works carried out by the author from 2004 to 2009. This encompasses the conservation of surviving limestone relief decoration in situ, the reconstruction of missing masonry elements, and the final presentation of the site to visitors.     

ARCHAEOMETRIC STUDY OF PROTOHISTORIC GRINDING TOOLS OF VOLCANIC ROCKS FOUND IN THE KARST (ITALY–SLOVENIA) AND ISTRIA (CROATIA)*

This paper presents the results of the archaeometric study of 30 grinding tools found in the Karst plateau (an area that spreads from the northeastern border of Italy to Slovenia) and in the Istria peninsula (Croatia). The petrographic and geochemical characteristics of the artefacts indicate that most of them would be made of trachytic volcanites extracted from the Euganean Hills, near Padua (Veneto). It is known that trachytic rocks from this area had been widely exploited in northern Italy during protohistoric times, but these data considerably enlarge the area of diffusion of saddle‐querns made of these rocks, extending it to Istria. Additionally, the likely provenance from Mount Etna of few other pieces of mugearites and hawaiites represents a new element, to be fully evaluated in the context of trans‐Adriatic exchange/trade connections. Analytical data and possible archaeological inferences are presented in detail in the text.     

NEOLITHIC ‘GREENSTONE’ AXE BLADES FROM NORTHWESTERN ITALY ACROSS EUROPE: A FIRST PETROGRAPHIC COMPARISON*

Neolithic polished stone axe blades, manufactured with uncommon lithologies such as Alpine eclogites, jades and other HP metaophiolites, were exploited from primary and secondary occurrences in Piemonte and Liguria and dominate the north Italian and south‐east French polished stone blades used as functional tools (for deforestation and woodworking). In other European countries the same lithologies are found less frequently or only occasionally as axe blades; in north‐west Europe they were frequently used for manufacturing ceremonial axes that have shapes that are not present in the Italian Neolithic tradition. This paper undertakes a preliminary examination of the case, prevalently from a petrographic point of view, comparing the well‐established Italian petroarchaeometric knowledge with the rather poorer petrographic basis of the European eclogite/jade axes. A provisional picture of the distribution of these axes in Europe is provided and some interim interpretations and open problems are discussed.     

QUANTIFICATION AND DISCRIMINATION OF LITHIC USE‐WEAR: SURFACE PROFILE MEASUREMENTS AND LENGTH‐SCALE FRACTAL ANALYSIS*

This experimental programme employs length‐scale analysis of measured profiles to quantitatively discriminate the surface textures of stone flakes manufactured from East Anglian chalk flint used on four contact materials (shell, wood, dry hide and soaked antler). It presents a method for evaluating texture characterization parameters based on their ability to discriminate wear types, and to determine a level of confidence to the discrimination, using the F‐test. The results of this experimental work demonstrate that relative lengths, over certain scale ranges, can discriminate the stone tool surface wear profiles produced by the different contact materials.     

Maize and Bone: Residues of Grinding in Northwestern Argentina*

Archaeometric and archaeobotanical analyses of grinding residues inside an archaeological milling stone tool from the Cueva de los Corrales 1 site in northwestern Argentina are shown. Multiple analytical techniques are used to identify ground substances, and their results are compared and complemented. They give direct and reliable evidence of maize (Zea mays L.) and burned bone grinding in the pre‐hispanic Argentine north‐west, although the latter is little related to milling tasks.     

MAGNETIZATION DATING AT A MEDIEVAL MONASTERY (TUPHOLME,LINCOLNSHIRE)*

Tupholme Abbey, founded by c. 1166, was constructed of limestone masonry, some of which was reoriented at several times through its history. The limestone progressively acquired a ‘soft’, time-dependent magnetization in the earth's magnetic field—viscous remanent mag-netization (VRM)—that acts like a clock. Although VRM is normally disregarded by geologists because of its ephemeral nature, this remanence is acquired and persists over time-scales that are useful to archaeologists. Successive VRMs were initiated, at different ages of stabilization of the masonry, thus yielding a chronometric curve that allows us to determine, at least relatively, when masonry was installed.     

Impact of Pollution at a Stone Age Rock Art Site in Oslo, Norway, Studied using Lead and Strontium Isotopes

Naturally occurring strontium and lead isotopes were used to study the impact of anthropogenic pollution on a c. 4500-year-old rock carving in Oslo, Norway. Strontium analyses have shown that road-salt from de-icing of a nearby road has accumulated in the soil surrounding the carving. Upon rainfall this salt is redissolved and drains over the rock carving. Analyses of the lead isotopic system have confirmed the impact of traffic from the nearby road on the rock carving site, but also indicate other sources of lead in the Oslo area and pollution in general. The rock carvings at Ekeberg are at high risk as, apart from natural weathering, they are exposed to the deposition of road salt, emissions from nearby traffic, local and long distance atmospheric pollution and meteorological inversion effects during the winter.     

Some Evidence for Seasonality amongst Later Stone Age Hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa

Abstract

The Later Stone Age (LSA) period in Southern Africa is characterised by a succession of cultural traditions. The LSA hunter-gatherer populations were ancestral to the present-day San. They moved around in small bands, within a semi-fixed territory visiting open air and shelter sites to coincide with available resources.

The hunter-gatherers filled every niche in the environment, including the high mountains, deserts and semi-deserts, bush savanna and grass lands. They were well aware of the food sources available in their territories during the course of a year and utilized these opportunities. As winters in southern Africa are relatively mild, and most regions have foods available throughout the year, seasonality is difficult to demonstrate.

In only a few instances there is some evidence for seasonal use or seasonality. Age profiles of seals at Elands Bay Cave suggest short occupation periods during late winter and early spring. In the high mountains of South Africa and Lesotho, where winters are cold and frost and snow common, the faunal and floral remains suggest occupation during late spring, summer and early autumn. Abbot's Cave in the semi-arid central Karoo was used as a hunting lodge during September, relating to the lambing season and migratory behaviour of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis).     

LASER ARGON DATING AND GEOLOGICAL PROVENANCING OF A STONE AXE FROM THE STONEHENGE ENVIRONS*

The recently-developed laser microprobe ⁴⁰argon-³⁹ argon technique has been used to give a geological date for a rhyolitic tuff stone axe fragment from the Stonehenge environs. The method requires only milligramme-sized samples and gives dates of sufficient accuracy to aid in provenancing artefacts to sources, as well as information on the heating history of samples. The axe sample is of Lower Carboniferous date (341 ± 5 Ma) and this limits possible sources to outcrops within the Scottish Midland Valley and small altered exposures in Dartmoor. X-ray fluorescence analysis of the axe suggests the Scottish Midland Valley as the more likely source. The laser argon analysis also shows that the implement had not been heated in antiquity. Laser argon-argon dating can, therefore, be a useful tool in artefact study.