Arsenic accumulation on the bones in the Early Bronze Age İkiztepe Population,Turkey

In this study, arsenic, copper and lead content of a group of human and animal bones recovered from the Early Bronze Age ?kiztepe site have been analyzed using ICP-MS method. Average arsenic value of 90 femur bones of a human was found to be 15.0 ± 5.79 ppm which was varied among age and sex groups, and among species. Origin of arsenic accumulation in bones was diagenetic because overall the groups were highly variable. The distribution of metallic items among the burials had a big affect on the arsenic uptake of the bones. Copper and lead values supported the diagenetic arsenic accumulation in the bones as well. Their values on the bones were not as high as those for the individuals involved in metal working activities in the ancient world. Judging from these data, it is concluded that ?kiztepe people did not produce the manufactured metallic items using arsenical copper but might have been imported from the other sites.     

Metallurgical investigations at Godin Tepe,Iran, Part I: the metal finds

Godin Tepe, a large tell situated in western Iran along the Silk Road (High Road) and excavated from 1965 to 1973 by T. Cuyler Young, Jr. (56, 57, 58, 59 and 60), yielded over 200 metal artifacts dating to the Early Bronze through Iron Ages. Sixty-nine of these were investigated for this project using traditional metallography and electron probe microanalysis. It was found that the metal objects at Godin Tepe reflect a range of manufacturing techniques and represent multiple producers. In addition, a high degree of variability in production methods is seen for typologically similar aesthetic items like bracelets and pins, but there is uniformity in production of utilitarian items like chisels. The metals from Godin Tepe have provided great insight into the diverse manufacturing methods present on the Iranian Plateau in antiquity, especially during the Bronze Age.     

Technological continuity in Early Iron Age bronze metallurgy at the South-Western Iberian Peninsula – a sight from Castro dos Ratinhos

A collection of 54 bronze artefacts recovered from the inland settlement of Castro dos Ratinhos (Portugal) and belonging mainly to the 9th–8th centuries BC, was studied by the use of non-invasive and micro analytical techniques. EDXRF, Micro-EDXRF, SEM-EDS and Optical Microscopy were used to determine the alloy composition and to identify the different thermo mechanical operations applied in the production of the artefacts. Results show that the collection is entirely composed of good quality binary bronzes (with an average tin content of 10.1 ± 2.5%). Alloys with higher tin contents were kept in as-cast condition and used in the making of ornaments, while tools were often finished with forging and annealing operations. Despite the existence of some Orientalising features in the Castro dos Ratinhos, e.g. rectangular habitat structures, wheel-turned ware and amphorae, the exclusive use of binary alloys with a narrow range of tin content seems to be associated with an indigenous metallurgical tradition inherited from the Late Bronze Age. This may indicate that the Phoenician interaction within the inland indigenous communities was a slow and selective process, probably dependant on the social-economic and cultural development of local communities.     

Prospection of two circular Bronze Age ditches with multi-receiver electrical conductivity sensors (North Belgium)

Two types of electrical conductivity sensors were evaluated to prospect circular ditches surrounding former Bronze Age burial mounds, complementing aerial photography. The first sensor was based on the electrical resistivity (ER) method, while the second sensor was based on frequency-domain electromagnetic induction (FDEM). Both sensors were designed with multiple receivers, which measure several depth sensitivities simultaneously. First, the sensors were tested on an experimental site where a rectangular structure with limited dimensions was dug in a sandy soil. The structure appeared as a higher conductivity anomaly in the low-conductivity sand. Then, both methods were applied on two Bronze Age sites with different soil properties, which were discovered by aerial photography. The first site, in a sandy soil, gave only very weak anomalies. Soil augering revealed that the ditch filling consisted of the same sandy material as the surrounding, therefore this filling was not able to cause a high-conductivity contrast. Due to its lower sensitivity to noise in the low-conductive range, the ER-sensor produced a more pronounced anomaly than the FDEM-sensor. The second site was located on top of a ridge with a shallow substrate of Tertiary, coastal sediments. The ditch was very clearly visible on the sensor maps as a conductive low. At this location, the soil augering revealed that the ditch was dug through an alternating clay-sand layer and subsequently filled up with silty material from the topsoil. Overall, the shallow receiver separation produced anomalies that were both stronger and that corresponded better to the geometry of the ditches. The other receiver separations provided more information on the natural soil layering, and in the case of the ER-array they could be used to obtain a cross-section of the actual electrical conductivity with 2-D inversion modelling. The results of this study proofed that conductivity sensors can detect Bronze Age ditches, with varying contrast depending on the soil geomorphology. Moreover, the sensor maps combined with soil observations by coring provided insight in the environmental conditions that influence the contrast of the anomalies seen on the aerial photographs and the sensor maps.     

Archaeobotanical inference of Bronze Age land use and land cover in the eastern Mediterranean

Charcoal and charred seeds at five Bronze Age archaeological sites discern ancient land use in the eastern Mediterranean. Seed frequencies of orchard crops, annual cereals and pulses, and wild or weedy plants are used to characterize plant utilization at different archaeological sites on the island of Cyprus, in the Rift Valley of Jordan, and in the Jabbul Plain and along the upper Euphrates River valley in Syria. Seed to charcoal ratios provide proxies to determine the relative usage of dung versus wood for fuel across the ancient Mediterranean landscape. Greater charcoal and lower charred seed values are interpreted to represent a wooded environment, while higher amounts of charred seeds and minimal wood charcoal suggest a much great use of dung as a fuel source. Interestingly, Politiko-Troullia (Cyprus, Cypriot archaeological sites are, by convention, named for the nearest modern village (Politiko), followed by an italicized toponym (Troullia) referring to the plot of land that incorporates the site) has the lowest seed to charcoal ratio, suggesting its residents primarily burned wood and that the landscape surrounding Troullia remained relatively wooded during the Bronze Age. In contrast, villagers at Tell el-Hayyat (Jordan) utilized a mixture of wood and dung, in contrast to Tell Abu en-Ni’aj (Jordan), and especially Umm el-Marra and Tell es-Sweyhat (Syria), where inhabitants relied solely on dung fuel. Comparative analysis and interpretation of seed and charcoal evidence thus illustrates the variety of fuel use strategies necessitated by the dynamic and diverse Bronze Age landscapes of the Eastern Mediterranean.     

Chronology during the Bronze Age in the archaeological site Tell Qubr Abu al-‘Atiq, Syria

Archaeosediments are deposits with a direct or indirect anthropogenic component. They provide useful information about past human activities and interaction with the environment. When other materials, such as pottery, are present in archaeosediment layers, the combination of TL ages from pottery and OSL ages from sediments can provide complete data about the occupation and evolution of an archaeological setting. In Mesopotamia, tells are mounds formed by the debris of human occupation and the accumulation of muddy sediments mainly due to the decomposition of mud bricks in ancient towns. Many other materials such as pottery fragments, bones and charcoal can be found in the sediment layers. The combination of OSL, TL and radiocarbon ages can be very useful in the case of the Bronze Age Period in Syria, allowing the occupation sequence of such archaeological sites to be reconstructed. Tell Qubr Abu al-’Atiq, is located on the left bank of the Middle Euphrates River (Syria). The archaeological artefacts found in the sediment layers (pottery) collected during excavations in two areas of the site, indicated the occupation of the tell during the Early and Late Bronze Age by typological pottery classification. The radiocarbon ages of charcoal indicate that human occupation fits the archaeological hypothesis, providing an older and maximum occupation period between 2800 and 2300 BC and a younger period between 1400 and 900 BC. OSL dating of sediments shows ages younger than charcoal, while TL ages of pottery are generally older than sediment and charcoal ages. This can be explained as the different materials correspond to different events. The charcoal and pottery correspond to occupation periods, while sediments correspond to the further destruction of the site.     

中国南北气候差异对古代青铜镜铸造质量的影响及其相关问题

本文就中国南北气候差异对古代青铜镜铸造质量产生的影响进行了探讨,并佐以实验论证,指出古人在铸造青铜镜的过程中,在烧制好陶范以后采用了“热出冷浇”工艺。     

山东出土东周铜(钅和)及相关问题研究

山东出土铜(钅和)可分为两型、五期。春秋时期流行椭圆腹(钅和),战国时期流行圆角方腹(钅和)。春秋早期流行单环耳(钅和),春秋中期至战国晚期流行双环耳(钅和)。春秋早期偏早铜(钅和)产生于鲁北地区,其原型为陶罐;春秋早期偏晚传播到沂沭河流域。春秋晚期铜(钅和)的分布范围南达湖北、江苏,北达河北,西达甘肃,至战国中期逐渐消亡。     

Large scale smelting of speiss and arsenical copper at Early Bronze Age Arisman,Iran

We report analyses of different slag types found at the Early Bronze Age site of Arisman in North-West Iran. Here, an estimated 20 tons of slag provide evidence of sustained and large-scale production of metal, using both furnaces and crucibles. The results show that both speiss, an iron-arsenic alloy, and arsenical copper were produced, apparently side-by-side at the same site but using different ores and processes. We offer a tentative outline of the metallurgical processes involved in the production of these arsenic alloys and an explanation why speiss needed to be produced from arsenopyrite in a separate step, instead of using the mineral in its native form as a source for arsenic. We suggest that the speiss was then added either to secondary copper ore or to separately smelted copper metal, in order finally to produce arsenical copper in a regular and well-controlled process.