A cartographic fade to black: mapping the destruction of urban Japan during World War II

In this paper we examine the history, production, and use – practical and rhetorical – of maps created by the United States government during World War II as related to the development and execution of aerial bombing policies against Japan. Drawing from a range of maps and primary documents culled from libraries and archives in the United States, we argue that maps provide an important, and hitherto neglected, means through which to trace the exploration and eventual embrace of the incendiary bombing of Japan’s cities. In particular, our aim is to show how maps, along with the men who made and used them, played a central role in the planning and prosecution of air raids on urban Japan. We also address the mobilization of American geographers into the war effort, the re-configuration of America’s spatial intelligence community during World War II, and the ways in which maps were constructed in the context of total war.     

Modeling thermal convection in supradetachment basins: example from western Norway

The juxtaposition of fault‐bounded sedimentary basins, above crustal‐scale detachments, with warmer exhumed footwalls can lead to thermal convection of the fluids in the sediments. The Devonian basins of western Norway are examples of supradetachment basins that formed in the hanging wall of the Nordfjord‐Sogn Detachment Zone. In the central part of the Hornelen and Kvamshesten basins, the basin‐fill is chiefly represented by fluvial sandstones and minor lacustrine siltstones, whereas the fault margins are dominated by fanglomerates along the detachment contact. Prominent alteration and low‐greenschist facies metamorphic conditions are associated with the peak temperature estimates of the sediments close to the detachment shear zone. Fluid circulation may have been active during the burial of the sediments, and we quantify the potential role played by thermal convection in redistributing heat within the basins. Different models are tested with homogeneous and layered basin‐fill and with material transport properties corresponding to sandstones and siltstones. We found that thermally driven fluid flow is expected in supradetachment basins as a transient process during the exhumation of warmer footwalls. We demonstrate that the fluid flow may have significantly affected the temperature distribution in the upper five kilometers of the Devonian basins of western Norway. The temperature anomaly induced by the flow may locally reach about 80°C. The sedimentary layering formed by sand‐ and siltstones strata does not inhibit fluid circulation at the scale of the basin. The presence of fluid pathways along the detachment has an important impact on the flow and allows an efficient drainage of the basin by channelizing fluids upward along the detachment.     

High‐temperature magmatic fluid exsolved from magma at the Duobuza porphyry copper–gold deposit,Northern Tibet

The Duobuza porphyry copper–gold deposit (proven Cu resources of 2.7 Mt, 0.94% Cu and 13 t gold, 0.21 g t^?1 Au) is located at the northern margin of the Bangong‐Nujiang suture zone separating the Qiangtang and Lhasa Terranes. The major ore‐bearing porphyry consists of granodiorite. The alteration zone extends from silicification and potassic alteration close to the porphyry stock to moderate argillic alteration and propylitization further out. Phyllic alteration is not well developed. Sericite‐quartz veins only occur locally. High‐temperature, high‐salinity fluid inclusions were observed in quartz phenocrysts and various quartz veins. These fluid inclusions are characterized by sylvite dissolution between 180 and 360°C and halite dissolution between 240 and 540°C, followed by homogenization through vapor disappearance between 620 and 960°C. Daughter minerals were identified by SEM as chalcopyrite, halite, sylvite, rutile, K–feldspar, and Fe–Mn‐chloride. They indicate that the fluid is rich in ore‐forming elements and of high oxidation state. The fluid belongs to a complex hydrothermal system containing H₂O – NaCl – KCl ± FeCl₂ ± CaCl₂ ± MnCl₂. With decreasing homogenization temperature, the fluid salinity tends to increase from 34 to 82 wt% NaCl equiv., possibly suggesting a pressure or Cl/H₂O increase in the original magma. No coexisting vapor‐rich fluid inclusions with similar homogenization temperatures were found, so the brines are interpreted to have formed by direct exsolution from magma rather than trough boiling off of a low‐salinity vapor. Estimated minimum pressure of 160 MPa imply approximately 7‐km depth. This indicates that the deposit represents an orthomagmatic end member of the porphyry copper deposit continuum. Two key factors are proposed for the fluid evolution responsible for the large size of the gold‐rich porphyry copper deposit of Duobuza: (i) ore‐forming fluids separated early from the magma, and (ii) the hydrothermal fluid system was of magmatic origin and highly oxidized.     

上海鲁迅纪念馆舒适性中央空调湿度控制的改造

当今博物馆纪念馆陈列展厅有大量的文物展示,需要有恒温恒湿的环境加以保护。而现今许多博物馆已有空调,温度达到恒温,但是湿度难以控制,分析原因是因为空调设备的选型是舒适性中央空调,而舒适性中央空调调节温湿度以人体舒适为标准,在有些客观条件下,不能有效地控制湿度。为了利用现有的设备达到恒湿的效果,可以根据现存的能力和条件将原有的空调系统加以改造,改造的方法是将新风进行初步的除湿处理,再通过原空调箱将新回风进行降温降湿处理,从而达到控制湿度目的。上海鲁迅纪念馆的空调系统通过改造后,基本能达到一定的温湿度要求。因此,本方法对于一些采用舒适性中央空调且在控制湿度变化上存在困难的博物馆纪念馆进行改造,具有借鉴意义。     

博物馆文物保存环境质量标准研究

我国大气污染严重,环境质量恶化使文物受损影响日益明显。上海、重庆、广州三市博物馆环境质量检测调查说明其现状与文物保护的要求还有相当距离,有些甚至还处于污染相当严重的地步。博物馆文物保存环境影响因素主要是温湿度、光线(可见光、紫外光)、污染气体(包括尘埃),不同材质的文物受各种环境因素影响在程度上是不同的。有的是起主要作用,有的则是起协同增效作用。研究其反应机理、反应速率,量化它们之间的关系,将是制定出文物保存环境质量标准的重要依据。 文物保存环境质量标准要求达到最大限度降低环境因素对文物所造成的损害,但受治理技术、监测技术、经济的许可、合理程度等方面的制约,制定分级标准将有利博物馆的环境治理实施和监测。     

用示踪气体法检测文物展柜换气率技术研究

摘要文物展柜为文物的展示和保存提供了一个相对独立的空间,展柜密封度的高低影响着展柜内微环境调控的效果。为评价文物展柜的密封度,用示踪气体法检测展柜换气率,从检测便捷、安全和实验数据可靠角度分析比较了二氧化碳和乙烯的实验结果。结果显示,两种示踪气体均可用于检测展柜的密封度。其中,二氧化碳气体检测法比较方便,但其密度较大,易于沉降,检测结果偏低。环境湿度对二氧化碳示踪气体法检测的结果有一定影响。应用二氧化碳示踪气体法测试了多种展柜的换气率表明,各展柜的密封度有较大差别,每天换气率从0.1次到37次不等。检测结果提示,二氧化碳示踪气体法为评价展柜的密封度提供了一个简便易行的方法。     

故宫养心殿燕喜堂古建筑琉璃构件的釉面损毁研究

故宫建筑琉璃构件面临最主要的病变是琉璃釉层的大面积脱落,以养心殿燕喜堂最为典型的琉璃筒瓦为研究对象,分析釉层和胎体的成分、形貌以及热性能等,同时进行不同条件下的模拟循环试验发现:环境温湿度变化剧烈,会引起琉璃样品的釉层脱落,其中样品釉层越厚、胎釉与胎体的热扩散性能和热膨胀性能差异越大,样品釉层脱落的速率会越快。分析原因主要在于琉璃样品从高温急剧降到低温等循环过程发生的“淬火”,样品从高温下降至冷冻室冰水混合物中表面釉层的温度下降速率相对最大,这种温度的急剧变化会引起釉层张应力以及胎釉界面热应力的分布不均,釉层脱落破坏最为严重。对比琉璃样品发生破坏时的模拟实验条件和实际环境条件,与夏季的高温/暴雨最为相似,推测可能成为破坏古建筑琉璃釉面脱落的最主要因素之一。研究成果可为后期文物保护和修复方案的提出提供科学依据。     

Experimental effects of bone size and temperature on bone diagenesis

In the ground, bone undergoes chemical and physical changes which affect its preservation. This fact has important implications for dating and other analytical procedures involving bone, as well as faunal analysis where differential preservation of bones of different species may affect conclusions regarding the relative significance of an animal to the economy of a given society. The diagenic processes in bone range from minor changes in the bone protein to complete structural and chemical breakdown.Using fresh cow bone, we conducted laboratory experiments which simulate the effect of temperature and bone size on the rate and nature of bone disintegration in archaeological sites. Temperature influences the rate of chemical change, and bone size and density affect the accessibility of the molecular constituents of bone to extrinsic chemical reactions. These findings clarify the importance of two well-known concepts in bone taphonomy. (1) The rate of chemical breakdown in bone tissues is related to the proximity of a given unit of tissue to the bone surface. This means that, in archaeological bone samples, tissue near the surface may be different chemically from tissue away from the surface and great care is necessary in choosing and preparing bone samples for analytical procedures. (2) In general, small bones are not as well preserved as large bones, therefore small animals are likely to be underrepresented in faunal assemblages.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of the urban heat island effect in a small Brazilian city

This study examined the spatial and temporal patterns of the canopy layer urban heat islands (UHI_UCL) in a small city in southeastern Brazil using the local climate zone (LCZ) system. We analysed the influence of weather conditions, LCZs characteristics, and local surface relief on the UHI_UCL magnitudes. Mobile traverses were used to measure air temperatures during representative nights of wet and dry seasons. Daily maximum magnitudes were observed in compact classes (LCZs 3 and 7) under ideal weather conditions (dry, clear skies, and calm) and higher anthropogenic heat release (weekdays). Seasonal effects on LCZ thermal differences were negligible. The peripheral landscapes were warmer than the city centre in both seasons. Among the warmer areas in the city, magnitudes in compact LCZs 3 and 7 were consistently higher than in LCZ 6. In general, representative sites of the main ‘built’ LCZs in the study area exhibit similar inter-zone temperature patterns to those reported for cities of different sizes from tropical and midlatitude regions. Thermal contrasts of ΔT_{LCZ 3 − D} in the study area reveal significant evidence that small cities can have as strong heat islands as bigger cities. These findings highlight the importance of the LCZ system to identify the main controlling factors driving such thermal differences and the need to extend the application of this approach in other South American cities to yield systematic data of UHI_UCL for urban planning given the coming challenges of climate change over the region.     

湖南七星墩遗址中红烧土建筑材料的科学分析

新石器时代中期,中国先民将制陶技术运用于房屋建筑中,发展了一系列强度与耐水性能显著提升的烧土建筑材料,极大地改善了居住环境。长江中下游地区新石器时代房屋建筑发展脉络清晰,广泛利用红烧土材料。采用XRD法、XRF法、磁化率法和色度法从物相组成、元素成分、磁化率、色度等方面对湖南七星墩遗址出土的不同文化时期的烧土样品进行综合分析。结果表明,6件红烧土样品应均为就地取土,并在泥料中加入了稻壳和稻草等植物残骸作为羼和料,经人工烘烤而成的建筑材料,等效烧成温度区间为550～700℃。研究结果可丰富史前建筑史的研究,磁化率测温法为未烧制黏土考古材料的烧成温度研究提供了一种科学有效的方法,进一步可尝试应用于早期陶器(尤其低温陶器)的烧成温度研究。