Strengthening Minds and Bodies Within the French School System. Physical Education for Boys and Girls Between 1936 and 1950

Physical education has been compulsory in France since 1880. Between 1936 and 1950, expansion intensified and extensive changes were made to course content. This article assesses the ramifications of these choices through an in-depth study of four variables that defined its instruction. Even if priority was given to generalisation and equal access to knowledge, research revealed an upsurge in the fight against real or presumed student vulnerability. At the time, a strong consensus emerged with the commitment to fight frailty. This was all the more the case for young girls as they belonged to a specific group with respect to their physical make-up. The school system stressed the relevance of instruction adapted to girls even if emphasis was placed on the cultural aspect of sport content. The pedagogical programmes put into effect for youths based on these guidelines confirmed this trend. This situation raised concerns as to the role of the school system in the development of social stereotypes through a discipline that would become the focus of the French education system.     

A case of beheading dating from the celtic period (la Tène B,Sarliève‐Grande Halle,France)

Excavation at the site of Sarliève‐Grande Halle, La Grande Halle revealed a large celtic necropolis dating from the 1st century BC. Burial number SP 2170 presented evidence of beheading. The position of the body showed a proper anatomical situation of the head in spite of a dislocation of C1–C2 and abnormal rotation of the head on the right side. Moreover, the arms were in an unusual position, with internal rotation of the humeri, the forearms crossed and the palm up position of left hand. The second cervical vertebra showed complete section of the odontoïd apophysis, associated with cutmarks on the vertebral body. The occipital bone had a large cut on the left side of the squama. These lesions correspond to those already described for decapitation in antiquity. The reconstruction of the chronology of the wounds as a form of execution is discussed in the historical context of the Celtic populations in Gaul. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

L'action de Józef Retinger en faveur de l'idée européenne 1940–46

Considéré comme un “Père de l'Europe” par les historiens actuels, Józef Retinger reste un personnage mystérieux et insolite, souvent décrit dans la littérature existante comme un homme de l'ombre, une éminence grise ayant ses entrées partout. Le présent article désire, au delà des accusations que certains portent sur son action, lever en partie le voile à propos des motivations de l'action européenne de Retinger, marquée par une forte continuité depuis la fin de la première guerre mondiale. Le moment le plus fécond de son activité politique en faveur de l'idée européenne se situe pendant la seconde guerre mondiale, lorsqu'il était le plus proche conseiller du général Sikorski, premier ministre du gouvernement polonais en exil. Déplorant la scission de l'Europe en deux causée par l'antagonisme entre les grandes puissances, il fonde avec le Belge Van Zeeland, en 1946, la Ligue Européenne de Coopération Economique.     

Two neolithic cases of Hyperostosis frontalis interna

Bone nodules resulting from Hyperostosis frontalis interna (HFI) were observed on the endocranial surface of the frontal bone of two elderly females in excess of 50 years of age coming from the excavation of the Neolithic hypogeum of Boileau (Vaucluse, France). These observations constituted the first evidence for HFI in the Neolithic periods in Europe. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Eco-cultural niches of the Badegoulian: Unraveling links between cultural adaptation and ecology during the Last Glacial Maximum in France

This study details an application of eco-cultural niche modeling (ECNM) using two modeling architectures—a genetic algorithm (GARP) and maximum entropy (Maxent)—aimed at examining the ecological context of sites with archaeological remains attributed to the culture termed the Badegoulian (ca. 22–20 k cal BP), which dates to the middle part of the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 23–19 k cal BP). We reconstructed the ecological niche of the Badegoulian and assessed whether eco-cultural niche variability existed within this technocomplex. We identified two broad but distinct spatial entities in the distribution of Badegoulian sites based on lithic raw material sources and circulation, and found that these spatial units share a similar ecological niche. We discuss the implications of territorial differentiation within this niche in light of research on land use by culturally affiliated groups within a broad cultural entity. We propose that Badegoulian circulation networks reflect distinct social territories associated with particular conditions within a single ecological niche. This study illustrates the utility of combining ecological niche reconstructions with archaeological data to identify and evaluate diachronic trends in cultural continuity for situations where such patterns may be missed when the focus of study is restricted solely to lithic technology and typology.