Legal issues with volunteered geographic information

Volunteered geographic information (VGI) is a relatively new and rapidly developing activity with varying degrees of organization and legal sophistication that involves host sites, contributors, and users. VGI related activities raise a variety of legal issues, from intellectual property to liability, defamation, and privacy. These issues may affect the rights and obligations of all those who use or participate in VGI activities. This article provides an overview of some of these legal considerations from the perspectives of the host, contributor, and user respectively.     

The early bivalve radiation in the Ordovician Gondwanan basins of Argentina

The Ordovician diversification is marked by an increase in both marine diversity and ecospace occupation. Bivalves, like other groups, underwent a remarkable diversification in the Early Ordovician. The early phases of such a bivalve diversification took place in the Gondwanan basins of western Argentina. In the Northwestern Argentina (NWA) Basin, three clades originated during late Tremadocian–Floian times. In the Floian successions of the Famatina Basin, a probable basal arcoid is recorded. Genera from these two basins belong to 13 families. Phylogenetic analysis of the NWA heteroconchian bivalves indicates that redoniids and coxiconchinids may have originated during this radiation event. This taxonomic radiation also implies an ecological diversification. Ten guilds are recognized on the basis of bauplan, mode of life, and feeding types. Lifestyles included free endofaunal, free semi-endofaunal, semi-endobyssate, and epibyssate; feeding types included suspensivorous and detritivorous habits. Physiological changes imposed by colonization of low-salinity environments also account for guild definitions. Recent discoveries of Tremadoc to early Darriwilian bivalves from the NWA and Famatina basins indicate that the dominance of higher groups (e.g. Heteroconchia, Pteriomorphia) deviates from the patterns evident in other Gondwanan basins. This agrees with previous ideas supporting the importance of local radiations during the Ordovician diversification. Two new taxa are described, Eoredonia orientalis gen. et sp. nov. and Babinka notica sp. nov., and Coxiconchia sellaensis Sánchez & Babin is first reported from the NWA Basin.     

Refining the Quadratic Crown Height Method of age estimation: do elk teeth wear quadratically with age?

Teeth are the basis for the best methods for estimating the age-at-death of archaeological and paleontological faunal remains, because they change by eruption and wear throughout an individual's life and because they preserve well. However, age-at-death can be difficult to estimate when teeth are isolated or when no known-age reference sample is available. For these reasons, researchers developed the Quadratic Crown Height Method (QCHM), a set of quadratic formulae that can be used to predict age-at-death from tooth crown height, when unworn crown height and the ages when the tooth erupts and when its crown height should reach zero can be estimated. Previous tests of the QCHM suggest that modified equations could improve the method. Here, we use crown height measurements on a sample of 226 known-age Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) to perform such modifications. We adjust the age at which each tooth type's crown height reaches zero from the species' potential ecological longevity or average maximum life span to an age that we empirically estimate for each tooth type. We also empirically assess whether for different elk teeth the exponent in the QCHM formula is actually equal to 2; it is for M1, but for P4 it is about 1, indicating a roughly linear relationship. The exponents for M2 and M3 are intermediate, being closer to 1.5. Because different teeth wear at different rates and wear completely away at different ages, we recommend that researchers use the modified equations provided here to estimate age-at-death for samples of Cervus elaphus.     

Characterization of prehispanic cosmetics found in a burial of the ancient city of Teotihuacan (Mexico)

The present paper reports the chemical data obtained on samples of pigmenting materials contained in 31 miniature vessels found in a burial found in Teopancazco, a multiethnic neighborhood center located in the southeastern sector of the archaeological site of Teotihuacan (Central Mexico) and the analytical protocol established for the complete characterization of these archaeological materials. For this purpose a multi-technique approach based on the combination of several non destructive and micro-destructive instrumental techniques, namely, light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy-X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), voltammetry of microparticles (VMP), X-ray microdiffraction (μXRD), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis spectrophotometry, FTIR spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been developed in an attempt to completely characterize these materials. These instrumental techniques provide reliable and complementary data including elemental and mineralogical composition, identification of functional groups as well as speciation studies of electroactive species. Among the most relevant findings, volcanic pyroclastic rocks and clayey soils, most probably, from the Teotihuacan valley as well as galena, jarosite and mica from other provenances in Mesoamerica, have been identified. Charcoal and Ocote resin have also been identified. The chemical composition of the samples is discussed with a view to the possible function as cosmetic materials and their use in funerary rites. The results have been critically compared with those others obtained in other ancient civilizations. The study carried out on the materials found in the burial 105 is especially relevant insofar it represents the first evidence, scientifically characterized, of the use of cosmetics in Mesoamerica at this early period (AD 200-550).     

A Note on the Shift to a Service-Based Economy and the Consequences for Regional Growth

Using data for the 50 U.S. states we relate industry-specific employment growth rates over the period 1976–1989 to the industrial compositions of the states in 1976. We explore the idea that services and manufacturing are inextricably linked and that this interdependence may be beneficial to manufacturing (through knowledge spillovers, for example). Specifically, we test whether the manufacturing sector grew faster in service-based economies. Our evidence does not support the idea of cross-fertilization from services to manufacturing.     

In situ desalination of a granitic column by the electrokinetic method

Desalination of rocks used in monuments is a common strategy to reduce the possibility of deterioration by soluble salt crystallization processes. In the last years, some laboratory studies have demonstrated that the application of electrokinetic techniques allow to achieve higher desalination effectiveness, overcoming most limitations of the traditional methods. However, to our knowledge no studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of this technique for in situ desalination of granite. The present study is aimed at filling this gap. The results of an in situ desalination intervention using electrokinetic methods, on a column highly contaminated with salts are presented. The desalination method was optimized to desalinate large in situ structures, trying to establish the necessary protocols (buffering system, irrigation system, setup, etc.) to obtain results as satisfactory as those obtained in laboratory. The results demonstrated the high effectiveness of this method in terms of total salt extraction and depth of salt extraction. The concentration of anions in the column was decreased by more than 80% after 55 days of treatment. No mineralogical and aesthetic damages on the stone were detected after the treatment, confirming the reliability of this method to be applied in situ on granitic rocks.