The Reformed Elect: Wealth, Death, and Sanctity in Gloucestershire, 1550–1640

The cleansing of the parish space in the sixteenth century provided opportunities for the laity to state the case for their own sanctity within the spaces formerly occupied by the didactic imagery of the Elect. Pietistic superiority in death, rendered in stone with reference to a popular ideal set forth in the Ars Moriendi elevated the moneyed over the living congregation. This paper compares the emphases of memorials in Gloucestershire, England, with that of selected Ars Moriendi texts in order to comprehend how wealthy patrons farmed themselves as a novel focus for popular adoration and what they hoped to achieve by doing so.     

Claude Bernard and an introduction to the study of experimental medicine: "physical vitalism," dialectic, and epistemology

This article explores the profound impact of the thought of Claude Bernard (1813-78) and his philosophy of experimentalism elaborated in his masterwork An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine. I argue that Bernard's far-ranging theoretical impact on medicine and biology marks the end of conventional vitalism and the elusive notion of a "vital force" as a legitimate scientific concept. His understanding of medicine is as epistemologically significant in its time as Newton's contribution was to the physical sciences in the seventeenth century. This essay treats Bernard's philosophical ambitions seriously, exploring his important, even central, role in the mental world of nineteenth-century France. This includes his influence on Henri Bergson (1859-1941) and other late-nineteenth century thinkers. The subtext of Bernard's experimental epistemology is also contrasted with a key idealist philosopher of the period, the German Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), and placed in the context of the larger European philosophical sphere. In contrast to much of mid-nineteenth-century philosophy, Bernard, in creating the framework for experimental medicine, argued for an experimental approach in which a priori assumptions were to be strictly constrained. Bernard's thoughts on the nature of experiment put an end to "systems" in medicine, ironically by replacing all previous medical philosophies with the all-embracing "system" of experiment. And yet, while "vital forces" fade after Bernard, a form of vitalism still flourishes. Even in Bernard's own work, in the struggle with concepts like determinism, complexity, and causality, there is a realization of the unique character of living function in a kind of "physical vitalism."     

On Equality

Locke builds a world that has benefits and costs. While economics has illustrated the benefits, this work illustrates the costs, by contrasting Two Treatises of Civil Government to the work of Aristotle. Generally, the cost one must bear from entering the world that Locke built is a compression of human experience, where qualitative equality of all things is asserted to exist. More importantly, a trivialization of all the outcomes, which emanate from all human decisions, must accompany the equality that Locke asserts. Even though Locke provides the elementary operating system for modern economics, through his proposition of the principle of qualitative equality, this operating system effectively divorces man, not only from nature but also from the very thing with which man has always used to interpret the natural world; works of great literature. While great literature has little patience for the trivial outcomes of human existence, except to highlight the importance of non-trivial outcomes, this work suggests that economics, under the influence of Locke, is permanently incapacitated from ever considering non-trivial outcomes.     

Plato and the Theodosian Code

The codification project initiated in 429 ad that resulted in the Theodosian Code was originally designed to integrate three types of law: one, imperial constitutions since Constantine; two, the legal material collected in the tetrarchic Codices Gregorianus and Hermogenianus; and three, a florilegium of juristic writings and responsa. The ultimate aim was to condense all this in a single comprehensive law book that would govern the entire life of the empire and its subjects. As this paper shows, such a project had no precedent in Roman legal history and in fact ran counter to the traditional multiplicity of legal sources in Rome. This prompts a question: from where did the intellectual fathers of the codification project drew inspiration for such a revolutionary idea? In the paper's second part, I argue that one important model for the codification project of 429 could have been the legal code Plato designed for the ideal state of the Laws.