Anthropology and the covert: Methodological notes on researching military and intelligence programmes (Respond to this article at http://www.therai.org.uk/at/debate)

This article reflects upon the methodological challenges posed by the study of secretive organizations and programmes. In particular, it examines the question: when participant‐observation is not a feasible option, what techniques can anthropologists use to shed light upon covert military and intelligence agencies and the corporations that they contract? After reviewing anthropological research on secret societies from the late 18th and early 19th century, the author turns to contemporary anthropological work on bureaucratic institutions and initiatives that operate in secret. The author's own research into the US Army's Human Terrain System serves as an illustration. By adapting Laura Nader's suggestions for ‘studying up, down, and sideways’, the article suggests that documentary analysis (of both openly accessible and classified documents), interviews, and ‘self‐analysis’ provide a fruitful combination of methods for an anthropology of the covert.     

First Trials to Set Up a Microwave Reflectometric Tool for the Survey of Historic Timber Structures

Timber structures can be degraded during their life both by structural problems and by biological degradation factors like fungi and insects. The occurrence of those biodegradation agents could lead to a loss of their structural integrity, in the absence of appropriate maintenance. An early assessment of the decay is even more important when the wooden structures are part of historical buildings, in the interest of conservation of cultural heritage.

This article presents an application of microwave reflectometry for the in situ evaluation of timber structures. The measurement system allows detecting anomalies inside the material in a non-destructive and non-invasive manner.

The reflection coefficient is measured by means of a vector network analyzer (VNA) using a double-ridge antenna which transmits the continuous-wave (CW) microwave signal and receives the signal reflected by the material under investigation.

Measurements on laboratory models demonstrated the feasibility of the method. Results obtained on timber beam sections, compared with the findings of traditional investigation methodologies, demonstrate the potentiality of microwave reflectometry, suggesting its possible usefulness during the diagnostic phase as a non-invasive tool for preliminary screening.     

Virtual anthropology and forensic arts: the facial reconstruction of Ferrante Gonzaga

In the last few years virtual anthropology has been used to solve different problems that could not be properly addressed using a traditional anthropological approach. Mainly when dealing with mummies or embalmed bodies, the virtual approach is the only solution to carry out a detailed analysis of the skeleton without jeopardizing the integrity of the physical remains.     

Putting two and two together? Early childhood education, mothers’ employment and care service expansion in Chile and Mexico

In recent years, several middle-income countries, including Chile, Mexico and Uruguay, have increased the availability of early childhood education and care (ECEC) services. These developments have received little scholarly attention so far, resulting in the (surely unintended) impression that Latin American social policy is tied to a familialist track, when in reality national and regional trends are more varied and complex. This article looks at recent efforts to expand ECEC services in Chile and Mexico. In spite of similar concerns over low female labour force participation and child welfare, the approaches of the two countries to service expansion have differed significantly. While the Mexican programme aims to kick-start and subsidize home- and community-based care provision, with a training component for childminders, the Chilean programme emphasizes the expansion of professional ECEC services provided in public institutions. By comparing the two programmes, this article shows that differences in policy design have important implications in terms of the opportunities the programmes are able to create for women and children from low-income families, and in terms of the programmes’ impacts on gender and class inequalities. It also ventures some hypotheses about why the two countries may have chosen such different routes.     

Geoadditive Models for Regional Count Data: An Application to Industrial Location

We propose a geoadditive negative binomial model (Geo‐NB‐GAM) for regional count data that allows us to address simultaneously some important methodological issues, such as spatial clustering, nonlinearities, and overdispersion. This model is applied to the study of location determinants of inward greenfield investments that occurred during 2003–2007 in 249 European regions. After presenting the data set and showing the presence of overdispersion and spatial clustering, we review the theoretical framework that motivates the choice of the location determinants included in the empirical model, and we highlight some reasons why the relationship between some of the covariates and the dependent variable might be nonlinear. The subsequent section first describes the solutions proposed by previous literature to tackle spatial clustering, nonlinearities, and overdispersion, and then presents the Geo‐NB‐GAM. The empirical analysis shows the good performance of Geo‐NB‐GAM. Notably, the inclusion of a geoadditive component (a smooth spatial trend surface) permits us to control for spatial unobserved heterogeneity that induces spatial clustering. Allowing for nonlinearities reveals, in keeping with theoretical predictions, that the positive effect of agglomeration economies fades as the density of economic activities reaches some threshold value. However, no matter how dense the economic activity becomes, our results suggest that congestion costs never overcome positive agglomeration externalities. Nuestra propuesta se basa en un modelo geoaditivo binomial (Geo‐NB‐GAM) para datos de recuento regionales (regional count data) que nos permitan abordar simultáneamente distintos temas metodológicos importantes como la concentración espacial (clustering), no linealidades y sobre‐dispersión. Este modelo es aplicado al estudio de determinantes de localización de nuevas inversiones de tipo greenfield internas (inward greenfield investments) que se dieron entre 2003 y 2007, en 249 regiones europeas. Luego de presentar el conjunto de datos y de mostrar la presencia de sobre‐dispersión y agrupación (concentración) espacial, examinamos el marco teórico que motiva los determinantes de localización incluidos en el modelo empírico, y resaltamos algunas de las razones por las que las relaciones entre ciertas co‐variables y la variable dependiente podrían ser no lineales. La sección subsiguiente comienza con descripción de las soluciones propuestas por la literatura anterior para abordar la concentración espacial, no linealidades, y sobre‐dispersión, para luego presentar el Geo‐NB‐GAM. El análisis empírico muestra el buen desempeño del Geo‐NB‐GAM. Particularmente, la inclusión del componente geo‐aditivo (una superficie de tendencia espacial suavizada) nos permite controlar heterogeneidades espaciales no observadas que inducen a la concentración espacial. Al permitir no linealidades se revela ‐continuando con las predicciones teóricas‐ que el efecto positivo de las economías de aglomeración se desvanece a medida que la densidad de las actividades económicas alcanza un umbral de valor. Sin embargo, sin importar cuán densa llegue a ser la actividad económica, nuestros resultados sugieren que los costes de congestión nunca superan las externalidades de aglomeración positivas. 本文提出了一种应用于区域统计数据的负二项式地理加性模型,它能够同时处理包括空间聚类、非线性和过度离散等多种重要的方法论问题。将该模型应用于2003‐2007年的249个欧洲案例区,探讨其内部绿地投资的区位因子。在揭示了数据集样本分布具有过度离散与空间聚类特征后,我们对所构建的关于区位驱动因子的实证模型进行了核查,以确定是否遗漏重要变量,并高亮显示为何有些变量与因变量的关系可能是非线性的。本文后续部分首先描述了已有文献在解决空间聚类、非线性与过度离散等情景下的解决方案,并简要介绍了本文的Geo‐NB‐GAM模型。实证分析表明,该模型具有良好的模拟效果,尤其是地理加性成分（一种平滑的空间趋势面）在处理包括空间聚类在内的未被关注的空间异质性。非线性模型揭示出集聚经济的正向效应,随着经济活动密度阈值呈衰减趋势,这一点和理论预测是一致的。然而,本文结果显示无论经济活动的密度呈现何种变化,正向集聚的外部效应仍大于拥挤成本。.     

Establishing the Prehistoric Cultural Sequence for the Lopburi Region, Central Thailand

This study comprises the first archaeologically-defined chronological and cultural sequence for central Thailand. Based on collaborative research between the Thai–Italian Lopburi Regional Archaeological Project and the Thai–American Thailand Archaeometallurgy Project, the results of excavations at seven pre- and protohistoric sites that witnessed three millennia of local cultural development, from the early second millennium BC onward, are synthesized herein. This study fills a significant gap in Thailand’s prehistory, also identifying important cultural interactions ranging into southern China and Vietnam that led to the formation during the second millennium BC of a ‘Southeast Asian Interaction Sphere’. This interaction sphere, at the close of the second millennium BC, facilitated the transmission of the knowledge of copper-base metallurgy from southern China into Thailand, where it reached the communities of the Lopburi Region who took advantage of their ore-rich environment. At the end of the first millennium BC, strong South Asian contacts emerge in Southeast Asia. Among this study’s salient contributions is the characterization of these critical prehistoric antecedents, which culminated in a process of localization of exogenous elements, usually termed ‘Indianization’. The impact of this dynamic process was initially felt in central Thailand in the late first millennium BC, leading over time to the rise there, by the mid first millennium AD, of one of Southeast Asia’s first ‘state-like’ entities.     

Indo-Hispanic Dynamics: From Contact to Colonial Interaction in the Greater Antilles

Indo-Hispanic interaction is an essential issue in the colonial period in the Caribbean, but its study is currently marginalized as an offshoot of pre-Columbian archaeology. This state of affairs denies the indigenous contribution to the past and present ethnocultural composition of the region and privileges a colonial approach in scholarship. This paper reviews important aspects of the history of archaeological research on contact and colonial interaction in the Greater Antilles and its theoretical underpinnings. It also presents two recent archaeological case studies that show different facets of the interaction processes using new methodological approaches: El Cabo, Dominican Republic, with evidence of early contact, and El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba, a context of interethnic interaction under colonial conditions.     

Red Brigades (1969–1974): An Italian Phenomenon and a Product of the Cold War

With the removal of Khrushchev in 1964 the Soviet Union adopted—at the level of the secret service—a more aggressive policy towards western countries, with a more intensive recourse to so-called ‘covert operations’. These operations regarded even western communist parties, such as the Italian Communist Party (PCI), which were close to being viewed as ‘orthodox’ by the Soviet leadership. The so-called ‘active measures’ which resulted were realised through the infiltration of agents, the training of (usually young) extremists, and (through them) the sending of warnings to the PCI leadership about its divergence from the Soviet line. This context helps us to understand better than before three key events of the years 1968–1973: the emergence of the first terrorist groups in Italy (the Partisans Action Groups and the Red Brigades); the bombing of the electric mains line where Giangiacomo Feltrinelli lost his life; and the car crash in which Enrico Berlinguer was involved in 1973 during an official visit to Bulgaria. An analysis of the Cold War context in which Italian terrorism (and specifically the Red Brigades) developed reveals origins and patterns that are different to those usually identified in the literature.     

The Gubbio Papers: historic centers in the age of the economic miracle

World War II is over. Italy is radically transformed with new modes of production and consumption, of thinking and dreaming, of living the present, remembering the past, and projecting the future. Here is the end of an 'old' archaic Italy, and the beginning of a 'modern' one, which rethinks its own national identity on the basis of its 'Atlantic' collocation and Marshallized economy - but also as resistance to an 'Americanization' of its culture. An emblematic episode in this reconstruction of Italy is the discussion, opened by the Gubbio Papers in the early 1960s, on the ­'management' of Italy's artistic 'patrimony'. The restoration of Italy's historic centers, aimed at avoiding American urban sprawl and the culture of US neo-capitalism, engenders, however, new and more peculiar problems - last but not the least the 'museumification' of both Italy's culture and its past. This article frames the Gubbio 'solution' within the larger contemporary debate concerning the models of economic and cultural development that should be deployed in Italy's 'reconstruction'.