FIXED‐FREQUENCY RADIO‐WAVE IMAGING OF SUBSURFACE ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES: A MINIMALLY INVASIVE TECHNIQUE FOR STUDYING ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES*

In memoriam Tony Clark Sadly, this research marked the last field visit to the test site that the authors were able to share with their colleague Tony Clark. His enthusiasm, experience and encouragement inspired us to complete this project that, to many, must have appeared as grown men at play in a sand pit. A new approach to subsurface exploration has been developed, based on fixed‐frequency radio‐wave illumination from a buried transmitter. Data are collected from a buried, continuous wave source with a phase‐coherent surface‐scanning receiver and recorded in a digital archive from which images of the archaeological features are subsequently produced. An important feature of this approach is the opportunity to separate the data collection and archive functions, which form an uncompromised record of the site, from the more subjective image formation function. This paper reports the results of a feasibility assessment programme and discusses the future application of the method to real archaeological sites.     

THE STRUCTURE OF RUSSIAN IMPERIAL HISTORY

Path dependency is most valuable tool for understanding Russian history since 1480, which coincides with the ending of the “Mongol yoke,” Moscow's annexation of northwest Russia, formerly controlled by Novgorod, and the introduction of new method for financing the cavalry—the core of new service class. The cavalry had to hold off formidable adversaries (first Lithuania, then the Crimean Tatars, then the Livonians, the Poles, the Swedes, and the Ottomans) for Muscovy to retain its independence. Russia in 1480 was poor country lacking subsurface mineral resources and with very poor climate and soil for the support of agriculture. These basic problems inspired autocratic power and by 1515 an ideology was in place justifying it. Religion, literature, and law were employed to support the autocracy. A variant of caste society was created to support the army. This made up the substance of the first service‐class revolution in which all resources (human and intellectual) were mobilized to support garrison state. After 1667 the external threats to Muscovy diminished, but the service class kept its privileges, especially the land fund and the peasant‐serfs. Russia faced major foreign threats again in 1700 and in the 1920s and 1930s. Those threats precipitated the second and third service‐class revolutions. The second and third service‐class revolutions broadly paralleled the first. Reinvigorated service classes were created with state institutions to support them. As society became more complex, so did the service classes and their privileges. Ideologies (Russian Orthodoxy and then Marxism‐Leninism) were converted into devices to support the infallible autocratic ruler and his elites. Almost the entire population was bound to state service, either directly, working to support the service state, or paying taxes. The church and clergy were harnessed first by Peter's Holy Synod and then Stalin's Department 5 of the Secret Police after he revived the church during World War II. Writers and artists were also put into uniform, until they finally rebelled—but the arts retained their civic functions, first supporting the regime, and then criticizing it. Finally, law retained its traditional programmatic functions in regimes themselves beholden to no law. As the foreign threats diminished, the service classes lost their function, but the elite servicemen kept their privileges as the service states disintegrated and the service classes lost their collective élan. Both the Russian Empire (in 1917) and then the Soviet Empire (in 1991) collapsed almost without whimper.     

From Utopia to reality: Plaid Cymru and Europe†

ABSTRACT. This paper traces the evolution of Plaid Cymru's attitude towards Europe. It does so by focusing in turn on: the place of Europe in the ideas of Saunders Lewis, the dominant figure in the party between its foundation in 1924/25 and 1945; the more ‘northern’ or Nordic vision of Europe that gripped the party in the post ‐ World War II era; and the waxing and waning of the party's most EU‐enthusiastic phase between the mid ‐ 1980s and the present day. By adopting a longer timeframe than is normally the case, the paper argues that Europe has played a wider role in the thinking of the party than is often conceded; a role that was not at all or only tangentially related to actually existing institutions. The paper goes on to argue that it was in part the chastening impact of Plaid Cymru's eventual exposure to actually existing European institutions that led the party in 2003 to abandon its utopian commitment to a post‐sovereign Europe in favour of an explicit commitment to ‘independence’ as its long‐term aim.     

Export-oriented industrialisation,the new international division of labour and the corporate state in the Third World: an exploratory essay on conceptual linkage*

The division of the social sciences into separate disciplines is now largely recognised as spurious. Nowhere is this more so than in what we generally call ‘development studies’. Major contributions to development studies have come, and must continue to come, from economists, political scientists, sociologists and geographers–a pattern that is epitomised in the enormous amount of ‘interdisciplinary readers’ in development studies and the manner in which journals from all social science disciplines publish research on development studies as part and parcel of their regular format. As a political scientist my research in general and my research in development studies in particular has recently been informed, amongst others, by scholars who we might nominally call geographers (especially the work of Clark and Dear, 1984; Clark, 1983; Harvey. 1982; Brookfield, 1975; Peet, 1980; and Rimmer and Forbes, 1982). I am pleased, therefore, to be able to publish a contribution to the current debate on development issues in a journal of geographical studies. It is, indeed, most apposite that the following discussion of the New International Division of Labour should be presented to an audience which, more than most, should appreciate the increasingly significant spatial aspects of this division of labour as it strives to locate and relocate major elements of the global productive processes in different parts of the developing world.     

CANADA'S ALL RIGHT: THE LIVES AND LOYALTIES OF IMMIGRANT FAMILIES IN A TORONTO SUBURB, 1900–1945

Before World War II, many immigrant workers in North America lived in industrial and residential suburbs. The early history of a residential suburbo of Toronto, Ontario, shows that, initially, homes were modest and public services were absent. Men worked long hours, commuted far and built the family home. Women strove hard to keep house and raise a family in unserviced homes. Children helped out, and played in the accessible bush. Self-provisioning was common, and early opportunities to acquire homes and establish businesses were good. Community-building created a strong neighbourhood identity. At first, settlers felt loyal to Britain, compared their experience with the situation back home, and concluded that Canada was 'all right. The Depression brought working-class loyalities to the fore and prompted many to become more critical of the Canadian status quo. This story raises questions about the nature of the immigrant working-class experience in North American cities in the early twentieth century.     

U.S. URBAN POLICY: THE POSTWAR STATE AND CAPITALIST REGULATION

This paper provides an historically grounded theory of U.S. urban policy which is informed by regulationist theory and recent contributions to the theory of the State. It is shown how the content and form of urban policy in the New Deal, was shaped by the rise of mass-production Fordism and informed by the particular struggles that emerged in the United States during the formative period of the 1930s and 1940s. These struggles produced a particular State policy response, setting in place a limited and constrained mode of State intervention in the economy. In the realm of urban policy, this narrow form of State intervention set limits on further rounds of State policy, leaving the U.S. State unable to respond in an effective way to the mounting economic crises of the 1970s and the 1980s, contributing to the so-called "failure" of urban policy.     

Capital,Labour and State Relations in the Analysis of Enterprises and Restructuring: An Australasian Debate

The paper arises out of the debate of a group of Australian and New Zealand geographers who attended a workshop in ‘Enterprises and Restructuring’ held in Canberra in September 1988. The paper outlines a framework for a political economy analysis of processes at the heart of economic restructuring and examines the units of analysis, concepts and approaches used by geographers bringing different philosophic positions to the investigation of economic restructuring. It explores how the three threads of production, accumulation and social relations are intertwined in the study of enterprise and restructuring and how an understanding of these dimensions provides a basis for reinterpreting the utility of many analytical categories. The discussion of the meaning, relevance and content of terms such as enterprise, industry, capital and the state confirms the validity and value of concepts derived from different theoretical positions and goes some way towards demonstrating that researchers from opposing positions can meaningfully communicate and cooperate.