Baptist Chapels as an index of cultural transition in the South Wales coalfield before 1914

“When the Welsh language dies the Welsh Congregational Union of Monmouth will of necessity die. The day of the burial of the Welsh language will be the burial day of the Union, which for centuries has been the means of the hands of God's Spirit to turn many to the Saviour. When the Welsh language expires, the spirituality and sacredness of religion will expire at the same time.”^[1]The cultural transition from Welsh to English in the developing South Wales coalfield before 1914 is reflected in the language used in Baptist chapels. Nonconformist chapels were foci of the emerging industrial culture, and the Baptists had a universal appeal to both Welsh- and English-speaking populations. The geographical distribution of Baptist chapels categorized by language of foundation is analysed in three chronological phases, during which the coalfield was transformed from a uniformly Welsh cultural area before 1860, through an intervening phase of linguistic heterogeneity, to a situation in the final phase after 1890, when the dominance of Welsh was restricted to the western section only. Moreover, the period after the foundation of a Welsh chapel was characterized by linguistic instability, since processes at work in the community created pressures for linguistic change from Welsh to English. The ensuing linguistic transition from monoglot Welsh through bilingualism to monoglot English is examined in the Monmouthshire section of the coalfield, and suggests a progressive “rolling-back” of Welsh from east to west, a rapid and regular process in which bilingualism was only a transient resting-place.     

Surface controls on the characteristics of natural CO2 seeps: implications for engineered CO2 stores

CO₂ injected into rock formations for deep geological storage must not leak to surface, since this would be economically and environmentally unfavourable, and could present a human health hazard. In Italy natural CO₂ degassing to the surface via seeps is widespread, providing an insight into the various styles of subsurface ‘plumbing’ as well as surface expression of CO₂ fluids. Here we investigate surface controls on the distribution of CO₂ seep characteristics (type, flux and temperature) using a large geographical and historical data set. When the locations of documented seeps are compared to a synthetic statistically random data set, we find that the nature of the CO₂ seeps is most strongly governed by the flow properties of the outcropping rocks, and local topography. Where low‐permeability rocks outcrop, numerous dry seeps occur and have a range of fluxes. Aqueous fluid flow will be limited in these low‐permeability rocks, and so relative permeability effects may enable preferential CO₂ flow. CO₂ vents typically occur along faults in rocks that are located above the water table or are low permeability. Diffuse seeps develop where CO₂ (laterally supplied by these faults) emerges from the vadose zone and where CO₂ degassing from groundwater follows a different flow path due to flow differences for water and CO₂ gas. Bubbling water seeps (characterized by water bubbling with CO₂) arise where CO₂ supply enters the phreatic zone or an aquifer. CO₂‐rich springs often emerge where valleys erode into CO₂ aquifers, and these are typically high flux seeps. Seep type is known to influence human health risk at CO₂ seeps in Italy, as well as the topography surrounding the seep which affects the rate of gas dispersion by wind. Identifying the physical controls on potential seep locations and seep type above engineered CO₂ storage operations is therefore crucial to targeted site monitoring strategy and risk assessment. The surface geology and topography above a CO₂ store must therefore be characterized in order to design the most effective monitoring strategy.