CHARACTERIZATION OF CORAL RED SLIPS ON GREEK ATTIC POTTERY*

Samples of red and black gloss from Greek Attic pottery of the late sixth to fifth centuries bc were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM and FIB/STEM). The focus of the study was the chemical and microstructural characterization of the red gloss that was first produced during this period. Two groupings of red gloss were revealed. One red was found to be compositionally similar to the black glosses (labelled ‘LCM coral red’). The other red showed more significant chemical differences, such as higher calcium and magnesium, in comparison to the black (labelled ‘HCM coral red’). The existence of two chemically distinct reds—otherwise identical in colour and texture—suggests that there was more than one source of clay available to the Attic potters for producing red.     

THE EFFECT OF SALTS ON THERMAL AND HYDRIC DILATATION OF POROUS BUILDING STONE*

Fifteen desalinated sandstone drill core samples from Umm Ishrin Sandstone Formation in Petra (Cambrian age) were used for this study. The samples were mineralogically analysed using X‐ray diffraction and their physical properties were also determined. Samples with similar physical properties and mineralogical composition were taken for further experimental work. After desalination, thermal and hydric dilatation coefficients were measured, then three types of salts (NaCl, KCl and Na₂SO₄·10H₂O), which have high solubility and consequently are the most dangerous to building stone (and are also detected in the sandstone monuments in Petra), were introduced into the samples and their contents were calculated. The results show that salt crystallization in the pores of building stones can increase their thermal dilatation and decrease their hydric dilatation to varying extents, depending on the nature of the salt. The average increase in the thermal dilatation coefficient per unit mass of salt is the lowest for the Na₂SO₄·10H₂O‐salted samples with a value of 5.3%, while the NaCl‐salted samples have the highest value with 7.8% per salt mass. The average percentage of the decrease of the hydric dilatation coefficient is 1061% for Na₂SO₄·10H₂O‐salted samples per mass of salt content; the NaCl‐salted samples have a value of 1510% per mass of salt content, and the KCl‐salted samples almost the same value. For the salt‐free samples, it was found that in climatic conditions with a high temperature range, the deterioration of sandstone due to temperature fluctuation is more effective than that caused by change in the moisture content, while samples with high salt content suffer more from hydric dilatation.     

A MULTI‐ANALYTICAL APPROACH FOR THE CHARACTERIZATION OF COMMODITIES IN A CERAMIC JAR FROM ANTINOE (EGYPT)*

This paper describes a multi‐analytical chemical study performed on the original, almost totally conserved, content of a small ceramic jar from the Antinoe archaeological site (fifth to seventh centuries ad, Roman Egypt) and now belonging to the archaeological collection of the Istituto Papirologico ‘Girolamo Vitelli’ (Florence, Italy). Scanning electron microscopy with an energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometer (SEM–EDX), Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD) were all used to characterize the inorganic components of the archaeological material. The organic substances were analysed using FTIR, direct exposure mass spectrometry (DE–MS) and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The inorganic component essentially consisted of halite (NaCl). Among the NaCl crystals, lamellar elements were identified. They were chemically characterized by carbonato‐apatite and showed a concentric morphology typical of the scales of small fish. The most prevalent organic constituents of the sample were monocarboxylic acids, α,ω‐dicarboxylic acids, and cholesterol and its oxidation products. The organic material composition was consistent with the occurrence of lipids of animal origin. In addition, diterpenes related to pine pitch were also identified. The overall results suggest that the material recovered in the small ceramic jar found in Antinoe is a residue of fish‐based pickles such as garum, muria, allex and liquamen, which were commonly used in Roman times.     

THE OCCURRENCE OF PALYGORSKITE IN THE YUCATÁN PENINSULA: ETHNO‐HISTORIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS*

Palygorskite is a rare clay mineral used by the ancient Mayas for fabricating the Maya blue pigment and for other purposes. It seems to have been obtained from a restricted area in the Yucatán peninsula where important archaeological sites are found. Geological samples from different localities in this area show a high content in palygorskite, indicating that this clay is widespread in Yucatán. Combining structural, morphological, compositional and geochemical methods, we analysed the common characteristics of Yucatecan palygorskites, and compared them with palygorskites from other origins around the world. These results can be used for defining a fingerprint of Yucatecan palygorskite to be used in provenance studies of archaeological artefacts, in particular the Maya blue pigment.     

DETECTING CHANGES OF CELTIC GOLD SOURCES THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF TRACE ELEMENT AND Pb ISOTOPE LASER ABLATION ANALYSIS OF CELTIC GOLD COINS*

This project follows on from an initial study of Celtic gold coins from the Middle Rhine/Moselle region, which was based on material found at the Martberg, a Late Iron Age/Roman sanctuary and settlement (River Moselle, western Germany; Bendall 2003 ). The earlier work was expanded to encompass over 100 examples of various other regional Celtic gold coinages from the collection of the Römisch‐Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz. The alloy (Au–Ag–Cu) and trace element compositions (in particular Ni, Sb and Pt) were determined by EPMA and LA–ICP–MS, respectively, and their Pb isotope signatures were measured by LA–MC–ICP–MS. Of the 28 trace elements measured, only Ni, Sb and Pt were found to show meaningful variations and so only they are presented here. In particular, differences in the Pt/Au ratios between various groups of earlier coinage (imitations of Philippus and Alexander/Nike staters, Sch. 23 and some early Boian coins) on the one hand, and the majority of the Boian and the southern rainbow cup coinages on the other, indicate a significant difference in the gold sources exploited for these regional coinages. The Pb isotope data confirm previous conclusions that the contribution of gold to the total lead in the Au–Ag–Cu coin alloys can be detected, especially for coins with over 70% gold, and show that possible gold sources include both eastern Mediterranean and Alpine sources. Combining the Pb isotope data with the Pt/Au ratios allows the potential gold sources to be further differentiated.     

Osteoporosis among ancient Egyptians

Osteoporosis is a condition of reduced total bone mass per unit volume for the normal ratio of bone mineral to bone matrix. The present work deals with the investigation and evaluation of osteoporosis in ancient Egyptians of two social classes from the Old Kingdom in Giza. The aims of this study are to provide information about the lifestyle and health status of ancient Egyptians, and to detect the causes of osteoporosis. The material consisted of 74 skeletons (43 males and 31 females) from two different social classes (high officials and workers). Skeletons were excavated from the Giza Necropolis and belonged to the Old Kingdom (2687–2191 BC). Dual energy X‐ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used to measure bone mineral density (BMD) at different skeletal sites (radius, fourth lumbar vertebra and head of femur). Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to show the microarchitectural structure of the bone. Results showed a significant decrease of BMD values in old age groups compared with younger ones in both sexes. In addition, SEM of trabecular bone in osteoporotic cases demonstrated that the horizontal trabeculae were more affected than the vertical trabeculae. Comparison between high officials and workers revealed that osteoporosis was more frequent in male workers than in male high officials, and in female high officials than in female workers. An elevated prevalence of osteoporosis among male workers may be related to the effects of nutritional stress and excessive workload, while a sedentary lifestyle may have played a role in the occurrence of osteoporosis among female high officials. Moreover, osteoporosis occurs earlier and more frequently in females than males, which may be related to the hormonal changes that accompany the menopause in females. This study emphasises the importance of gender and lifestyle factors in influencing the severity of osteoporosis. Age‐related bone loss at most skeletal sites is noted in both sexes of ancient Egyptians. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Eagle owl (Bubo bubo) pellets from Roman Sagalassos (SW Turkey): distinguishing the prey remains from nest and roost sites

Two concentrations of animal bones, almost exclusively from small mammals and wild birds, were found within the destruction debris of a Roman bath complex in Sagalassos (SW Turkey). The overall species spectrum, skeletal element representation, fragmentation and preservation condition of the bones indicate that they represent the prey remains of a large nocturnal avian predator, more precisely the eagle owl (Bubo bubo). Differences in skeletal element representation and in prey species' spectrum show that the two bone clusters derive from pellets deposited near a nest site and a roost site, respectively. Radiocarbon dates obtained from the bones indicate that eagle owls lived in the collapsing bath complex during the second half of the 6th to the beginning of the 7th century AD, before the final abandonment of the town. The MNI of the prey animals found at the nest site, confronted with the daily dietary needs of a female eagle owl and its young, indicates repetitive use of the same place during several years. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bone weight: new reference values based on a modern Portuguese identified skeletal collection

Skeletal weight and/or weight of the different bones of the human skeleton are currently used in a wide range of applications such as archaeological cremations and forensics. Still, few reference values are available that compare the mean weights for the different skeletal parts. In this paper we present new reference values for total skeletal weight, including the weight of the different skeletal bones based on a modern Portuguese Identified Skeletal Collection (CEI) curated in the Museum of Anthropology of the University of Coimbra (Portugal). The mean weight of the entire skeleton for the CEI pooled sample is 3323.8 ± 779.6 g. Sex and age differences were investigated. As expected, males display heavier bones, at a statistically significant level. The mean weight of the male skeletons is 3850 g, and 2797.6 g for the female sample. Age differences were found, especially for the female samples in the 29–39 versus 50–59 and/or >60 age groups, probably as a consequence of age‐related bone loss in post‐menopausal women. For the male sample, no clear age‐related trend was observed but for the unexpected result that the second highest bone weight recorded is in the oldest age group (>60 years). This could result from high mechanical loadings and thus greater bone robusticy and amount of cortical bone. The percentage of weight of the different parts of the skeleton was also calculated. These new values can be quite useful in the study of very fragmentary and/or commingled human remains, recovered from historic or forensic contexts, since the complete identification, by side, of the remains is not necessary. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.