唐代“六胡州”州城的建置及其运用——“降户”的安置和役使的一个类型

唐朝在突厥降户中贾胡的处理上采取把他们安置在适合生活的地方,并对之进行驱使的办法。这典型的表现在"六胡州"州城的建置及其运用之上。六胡州设于"河曲"之地的中西部一带,介于六州中的灵州、夏州之间,是指鲁、丽、塞、含、依、契等六小州。在突厥降户中,主要是贾胡降户被集体安置在这些州城之内。这些州城位于今内蒙古自治区河套地区的最南段一带,以及长城以北较为狭窄的地区,属于北方著名的湖泽地区,利于养马。六胡州民之所以主要由贾胡降户来组成,是因为他们具有养马等技术特长。他们在六胡州的州城内受到统治,并受驱使从事养马的工作。六胡州在高宗调露元年建置,这时唐朝正好遭遇养马大量丧失的危机,这是建置六胡州的重要原因。此外,六胡州因"以唐人为刺史",而不称羁縻州。六胡州民居于州城内的"坊"里。他们不一定都一直活动在州城之内,但应"编籍"在州城中一定区域的名称之下。     

A History of Normative Theory in Americanist Archaeology

Efforts in the 1960s to demonstrate the value of the new archaeology involved showing that the competing culture-history paradigm was inferior. One allegedly weak plank in that paradigm had to do with how culture historians viewed culture—as a set of ideas transmitted in the form of ideal norms or mental templates. Lewis Binford referred to this view as normative theory. In archaeology that view was manifest in the equation of artifact types with prehistoric norms—an equation that, according to Binford, the culture historians had made so that they could track the flow of ideas through time and thus write culture history. Culture historians regularly subscribed to cultural transmission as the theoretical backdrop for their artifact-based chronometers such as seriation and the direct historical approach, but with few exceptions they perceived only a weak relationship between norms and artifact types. It was not until 1960, in a paper by James Gifford, that what Binford labeled as normative theory appeared in anything approaching a complete form. Ironically, the first applications of normative theory were products of the new archaeologists, not the culture historians.     

A company of women and men: men's recollections of childbirth in medieval England

The events that took place in medieval English birthing chambers were witnessed and assisted by a company of women. Although these events may have been isolated, they did not exist in isolation. Rather, they interacted in complex ways with the lives and activities of the men in the manor hall. This article examines those interactions as they are evidenced in proof-of-age inquests, legal documents that record the recollections of husbands, fathers, and male relatives and neighbors regarding the events surrounding the birth of an heir to crown land. It concludes that even though men rarely entered the birthing chamber, their dynastic interests and social politics routinely penetrated its walls, blurring the boundary between private and public spheres, female and male space.     

Geographical Education in Higher Institutions in China: a Personal Viewpoint

Editor's Note The following article was written by Chun-fen Lee, Professor and Chairman of the Department of Geography in the East China Normal University, Shanghai, during his tenure as a Fulbright scholar in the United States in 1980. Minor editing was done by Marie Sanderson, University of Windsor. Professor Lee has a special tie with Canada. He was a student of Griffith Taylor's, with whom he is shown in Figure 1, and in 1943 received the first PhD in geography awarded by the University of Toronto. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, geographical education in universities and colleges has made a great deal of progress: in the establishment of specialized geography departments, in the training of teachers and geographical workers (some 40,000 in all), and in the publication of geographical textbooks. These were the main accomplishments of Chinese geographers during this period 1949–81, but we also experienced setbacks and traversed a tortuous road. Long before liberation in 1949, the first department of geoscience in China was founded in 1919 in the Higher Normal College of Nanking (now the University of Nanking) with Dr Co-ching Chu, a climatologist from Harvard, president of the Geographical Society of China and vice-president of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, as the head. There were then three sections in the department, of which geography was one. In the 1920s and 1930s several more geography departments were established. Until liberation, however, the departments were few and small, generally with a full-time faculty of fewer than 10 and an enrollment of some 20–50 students. Most of the graduates became teachers in the middle (or secondary) schools. After liberation, China entered a new stage of development in socialist revolution and socialist construction. By 1952 economic restoration was nearing completion and the first five-year plan was about to begin. In order to adapt to the needs of national construction, higher educational institutions underwent a nation-wide adjustment. Geography departments were classified into two categories: those in the comprehensive universities which concentrate on the training of specialized workers, and those in the normal colleges and normal universities, where teachers for the middle schools are trained. Only the geography departments of the two major normal universities (Peking Normal and East China Normal) do not fit this pattern. They might be regarded as an intermediate type of institution in which the functions of the comprehensive university and the normal college are combined. There are now about 35 departments of geography in China, most of them of a size that would have been undreamed of in the pre-liberation period. In each department there are about 100 to 300 geography majors and a faculty of 30 to 100, though most of the faculty members are assistants and instructors; there are rarely more than 20 professors and associate professors in a department. A number of the better equipped and stronger departments are now offering graduate programmes as well. Generally, it takes two to three years for the master's degree; the first one and a half to two years for course studies, including a foreign language, and the third for thesis work. Upon graduation, the more promising students are selected to proceed into doctoral programmes.     

University-Industry Collaboration on Technology Transfer: Views from the Ivory Tower

This article reports the results of a national survey that examines the concerns of American faculty about close university industry collaboration and explores how these concerns may impinge upon their participation in industrial innovation. The data show that while academics are generally, but cautiously, in favor of close collaboration, they live with deep tension that is caused by two powerfully competing realities: the instrumental need for industry funding, and the intrinsic need to preserve intellectual freedom. A challenge to public policy is to fashion a positive-sum strategy (e.g., tax incentives) in which firms would be encouraged to increase funding for their academic collaborators, who then may fulfill their research mission better while contributing to industrial innovation.     

A New Algorithm for Graph-theoretic Nodal Accessibility Measurement

Accessibility is a useful concept in the study of the spatial structure of a region, if it can be calibrated appropriately. While graph-theoretic analysis has been used widely as a measurement scheme for the nodal accessibility in various transport networks, several limitations have been pointed out in the existing graph-theoretic accessibility measurements. This study proposes a new algorithm for deriving the nodal accessibility measure, as an attempt to improve the conventional graph-theoretic accessibility measurements. Corrections are made in such a way that irrelevant loops are excluded and relevant indirect connection paths are included selectively. In particular, the new algorithm is developed for intraurban subway networks, and includes the characteristics of intraurban subway traffic behavior. The concept of inconvenience of transfer is introduced, which is one of the most influential factors in the intraurban subway traffic. Nodal differentiation is allowed, if the nodes play different roles in the travel behavior and eventually in the accessibility. For this purpose, we employ a weighting procedure, according to which the influence of transfer on a sequence of linkages is taken into account. The new accessibility measurement scheme is then applied to the Seoul subway network. Here GIS techniques are utilized to generate accessibility surfaces from the discrete nodal accessibility values, and the changes in the spatial structure of the nodal accessibility are analyzed. Finally, based on the resulting changes in the spatial structure of accessibility in the subway network, the direction of changes in the land value and the land use pattern in Seoul is discussed.