Population and forest dynamics during the Central European Eneolithic (4500–2000 BC)

The population boom-and-bust during the European Neolithic (7000–2000 BC) has been the subject of lively discussion for the past decade. Most of the research on this topic was carried out with help of summed radiocarbon probability distributions. We aim to reconstruct population dynamics within the catchment of a medium sized lake on the basis of information on the presence of all known past human activities. We calculated a human activity model based on Monte Carlo simulations. The model showed the lowest level of human activity between 4000 and 3000 BC. For a better understanding of long-term socio-environmental dynamics, we also used the results of a pollen-based quantitative vegetation model, as well as a local macrophysical climate model. The beginning of the decline of archaeologically visible human activities corresponds with climatic changes and an increase in secondary forest taxa probably indicating more extensive land use. In addition, social and technological innovations are important, such as the introduction of the ard, wheel, animal traction and metallurgy, as well as changes in social hierarchy characterizing the same period.     

Morphometric analysis and detection of invisible archaeological elements by spectral treatment of digital images

The aim of this paper is to describe the creation of a method to apply digital image treatment, consisting of a combination of filters and algorhythms, to prehistoric rock carvings, to enhance the information obtained from them. In the experimental phase a study was made of a laboratory piece and two highly valuable pieces of cave art from the Tamanart Valley in Morocco and the Casares Cave in Guadalajara, Spain. The results clearly demonstrate the potential of the proposed digital methodas information was obtained that could not have been achieved by the traditional techniques.     

Combining residue analysis of floors and ceramics for the study of activity areas at the Garum Shop at Pompeii

In this paper, we propose the application—for the first time in the Mediterranean area—of the combination of the study of chemical residues in floors and ceramics, with the aim of providing information about the activities carried out in archeological buildings. We chose the Garum Shop at Pompeii to test the method. In fact, due to the peculiarity of this archeological context, it provided an ideal case in which the activities performed are in part known, and the ceramic vessels recovered are still in situ. Floor samples were studied by means of spot tests developed in Mexico aimed at identifying the presence of phosphates, fatty acids, and protein residues, while the organic residues preserved in the ceramic matrix of amphorae, dolia, and other ceramic vessels were studied by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Moreover, we integrated the data obtained with specific studies directed at better identifying the solid residues found inside two of the amphorae studied: botanical studies of fruit stones recovered in a Dressel 20 amphora and the characterization of the lime preserved in an African amphora. The research allowed for the identification of the traces of some of the activities performed, such as cooking and producing garum in the floors of the building, and the use and re-use of amphorae and dolia before the Vesuvian eruption.     

Timber exploitation during the 5th–3rd millennia BCE at Arslantepe (Malatya,Turkey): environmental constraints and cultural choices

A considerable amount of charcoal remains from the archaeological site of Arslantepe (Eastern Anatolia) has been analysed. The anthracological assemblage comes from seven archaeological periods, ranging from the Late Chalcolithic 1–2 (mid-5th millennium BCE) to the Early Bronze Age III (late 3rd millennium BCE). The woody taxa exploited by the local communities appeared to have only minor changes throughout the investigated periods. For the evaluation of wood use practices, charcoal was chronologically grouped according to depositional context. The categories of depositional context identified differentiate between the uses of wood for structural parts of buildings, object manufacture, fuel, refuse, and wood found in outdoor areas or in burial contexts. Communities at Arslantepe, characterized by different cultural and socio-economic traits, appeared overall to select timber depending on its use: hydrophilous plants prevail in building material, with the exception of the 2900–2500 BCE period when environmental constraints probably motivate the dominance of woodland-steppe plants. The differential occurrence of taxa in the diverse depositional contexts highlighted cases of under/overestimation of remains, in particular in relation to the woods for construction. Finally, taxa have been attributed to different ecological groups. The interpretation of results and the comparison with other available palaeoenvironmental data point out that climatic factors play only a secondary role in the choice of wood exploitation in the area. Human choice may vary even with constant environmental records.     

Archaeomagnetic versus luminescence methods: the case of an Early Byzantine ceramic workshop in Thessaloniki,Greece

In this contribution, we present a combined archaeomagnetic and luminescence study of archaeologically dated structures. The investigated area is a ceramic workshop comprising several Early Byzantine kilns. Based on (a) the archaeological–anthropogenic stratigraphy of the site, (b) the structural characteristics of the kilns and (c) the few ceramic findings revealed within their context, the operation of this brick and tile factory is approximately dated between the middle of the fifth century until the first decades of the sixth century AD. Three of the well-preserved workshop kilns have been studied archaeomagnetically. The full vector of the geomagnetic field, accompanied by rock magnetic analyses of the studied material, has been defined. The archaeomagnetic study revealed similar directions among the three kilns indicating and confirming their contemporary use. Additionally, several luminescence measurements were obtained on material from the same kilns. The dating of the site was performed with both methods. The archaeomagnetic dating is convergent with the archaeological estimation only when its upper limit is considered. Concerning the luminescence dating, the calculated ages (corrected for anomalous fading and for the ⁴⁰K content) with their standard deviations are convergent with the archaeological estimations for the first kiln, while for the other two, the results seem to be incompatible. The possible factors that provoked this divergence are thoroughly discussed.     

Innovation and tradition in the fourth century mosaic of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Casa delle Bestie Ferite</Emphasis> in Aquileia,Italy: archaeometric characterisation of the glass tesserae

The present paper focuses on the archaeometric characterisation of 38 glass tesserae of various colours from an in situ mosaic in Aquileia, Italy, dated to the second half of the fourth century AD. The examination of the textural, mineralogical and chemical features, conducted by means of a multi-methodological approach (optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), electron probe micro analysis (EPMA), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fibre Optic Reflectance Spectrophotometer (FORS)), has provided valuable insights into the changes in the production technology during the transition between the Roman and the Late Antique periods. The assemblage is heterogeneous, and each chromatic group is composed of tesserae produced with different base glasses and colouring/opacifying techniques, suggesting diverse supplies. A small group of tesserae shows strict links to the Roman tradition in terms of both base glass and colouring/opacifying techniques and was probably obtained by re-using tesserae from older mosaics. Conversely, a larger group of tesserae shows textural and chemical evidence of recycling and indicates the prompt use of “new” opacifying technologies (such as the use of tin compounds) or uncommon technological solutions (such as the use of quartz and bubbles as opacifiers or the addition of metallurgical slags in red tesserae), suggesting a specific production in the fourth century AD.     

Micro-CT investigation of ostrich eggshell beads collected from Locality 12, the Shuidonggou site,China

Ostrich eggshell (OES) beads are an important kind of human ornaments, because their production reflects the development of modern human behavior, thinking ability, and cognitive level. Although the manufacture procedure of OES beads has been reconstructed in some Later Stone Age sites and early Neolithic sites, little information is known about detailed drilling technologies. In this study, synchrotron radiation micro-CT (SR-μCT) was firstly used to scan OES beads to understand microstructure, drilling marks, and perforation shape in a non-destructive mode. In contrast to other method to research drilling technologies, SR-μCT has a unique advantage that it could eliminate the influence of the adhering soils in a perforation in case that they are not easily removed. The results indicate that (1) SR-μCT could differentiate the eggshell species between Struthio camelus and Struthio anderssoni in terms of pore distribution. Compared to other destructive methods, including the anatomical method, DNA and protein analysis, the species identification through SR-μCT is non-destructive and faster; (2) the outer and inner surface of OES could be non-destructively judged according to OES microstructure, which would help infer the drilling direction; and (3) the perforation shape and drilling marks are distinct between the discontinuous twisting drilling and the multi-rotary drilling methods on the basis of replication experiments. According to these criteria, SR-μCT was applied to examine OES beads found in Locality 12 of the Shuidonggou (SDG) site in China, which were probably discarded in 1.1 k yr BP. The results show that most of ancient beads were firstly drilled from inside. According to the perforation shape and drilling marks, both the twisting drilling and the multi-rotary drilling method with different kinds of drill bits were used in working beads. Therefore, the people in SDG site mastered a few drilling technologies in the early Holocene, and the use of the multi-rotary drilling method reflects the technical development of ancient people. Up to our knowledge, it is the earliest known evidence of the application of the multi-rotary drilling method in China. Furthermore, this study will provide a new approach and important reference to understand drilling technologies of much older OES beads in the Later Stone Age or Upper Paleolithic Age.     

Mud-brick composition,archeological phasing and pre-planning in Iron Age structures: Tel ‘Eton (Israel) as a test-case

The eighth century BCE city at Tel ‘Eton (Israel) was destroyed by the Assyrian army, probably during Sennacherib’s campaign of 701. Building 101, sealed within the heavy conflagration caused by this destruction, was uncovered almost in its entirety on the top of the mound. From the beginning, it was apparent that the structure had two major building phases, and while its initial construction was of high quality, later additions were much inferior. Analyses of mud-brick walls for firing temperatures, texture, carbonate content, color, and dimensions approved the observation regarding the differences between the two phases, but consistently pointed out that one wall, initially attributed to the first phase, was analytically different, comprising an intermediate phase. This conclusion not only altered our understanding of the building construction, adding heretofore unknown building phase, but also gave us insights into the pre-planning of Building 101, indicating that some rooms had originally two doorways. Such a configuration allowed easy subdivision of spaces according to needs, without harming the overall structural stability. Differences in inner division of similar Iron Age houses were identified in the past and were attributed to differences in the life cycles of families. The evidence from Tel ‘Eton suggests that such future changes were taken into considerations when the structures were built.     

Non-destructive in situ analysis of polychromy on ancient Cypriot sculptures

The study focuses on the characterization of polychromy on limestone sculptures from Cyprus, attributed to the Cypro-Archaic—end of the Hellenistic periods. Polychromy components were identified by integrating digital microscopy, imaging under ultraviolet (UV) light, visible-induced luminescence (VIL), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and fibre optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS). Data acquisition was performed directly in exhibition rooms at the Cyprus Museum (Nicosia) and the Paphos District Archaeological Museum (Paphos). Among the identified materials, there are iron-containing (red, yellow, green) and copper-containing (green and blue) pigments. The precision of pigment identification by non-destructive techniques is discussed, and specific pigment names are proposed: red iron oxide, yellow iron oxide-hydroxide, green earth and Egyptian blue. Interesting results were obtained by VIL, which allowed identifying traces of Egyptian blue otherwise undetectable with the naked eye. Complementary, this study discusses advantages and problems of combined and separate use of portable XRF and FORS, raising the question of their complementarity and interchangeability for the purposes of pigment identification.     

Diet in transitory society: isotopic analysis of medieval population of Central Europe (ninth–eleventh century AD,Czech Republic)

Dietary behavior in the context of the formation of state structure, Christianization, and significant urbanization was studied, using the Great Moravian Empire (ninth–tenth century AD, Czech Republic) as a representative example. We also analyzed the impact of the disruption of social structure at the beginning of the tenth century and subsequent recovery of society during the eleventh century. Carbon and nitrogen isotopic values were measured in 189 adults (both sexes) and 74 animals representing different socioeconomic contexts (power centers/hinterlands) and chronology (Great Moravian/Late Hillfort period). Statistically significant differences in animal protein consumption were observed between centers and hinterlands. For centers, significant relationship was found between nitrogen isotopic values and socioeconomic status in males but not for females. Diachronic diet changes were observed, with the eleventh century diet characterized by higher millet consumption in both sexes and lower consumption of animal protein in males. These results confirm that Great Moravia represented a highly stratified society socioeconomically. Social status appears to determine the consumption of animal protein much more in males than in females. The diet of females also proved to be more uniform in the diachronic frame. The diachronic change in dietary behavior suggests that through the apparent recovery in the eleventh century, Moravian society did not reach its original level of welfare at least in terms of the quality of diet.