Experimental and clinical studies of localisation before flourens

Abstract

Experimental studies in the localisation of brain function did not begin with Flourens, nor did clinical studies with the phrenologists or physicians like Auburtin, Bouillaud, or Dax, shortly afterward. Although the pre‐1820 literature is moderate, some of it is worth examining because of the problems associated with interpreting it.

There are three separate but related problems: philosophical, methodological, and conceptual. Philosophically, whether one saw the brain as the main organ of sensibility, as did the Hippocratic writers and Galen, or the heart, as did Aristotle, determined the attention given to the brain. The methodological problems arose from the gross structure of the brain not being immediately obvious and the dominant technique of dissecting the brain in transverse sections revealing the ventricles and their immediately associated structures more readily than other structures. Conceptually, the ventricles were seen as the sites through which sensations were transferred to the muscles. Observations relevant to localisation were thus related to the ventricles or to structures lying outside the cerebrum.

What are now considered major structural landmarks were not discovered until late: the Sylvian fissure in about 1640 and the fissure of Rolando in 1829, the former being dependent on new methods of dissection. In general, it was not until the first half of the nineteenth century that the cerebral structures were properly differentiated. Consequently, calls for comparative clinical studies of the effects of lesions in different parts of the brain inevitably fell on ears tuned to a framework which could not incorporate them. So, did the results of the earlier experimental studies.     

Localization and William Macewen’s Early Brain Surgery Part II: The Cases

This paper contains Part II of an evaluation of the claims made for the priority of Macewen’s pre-1884 brain surgery over that of Bennett and Godlee. Although the primary sources – Macewen’s Private Journals and the Ward Records of the Glasgow Royal Infirmary – confirm that the operations were carried out when Macewen said they were, problems with the sources make it difficult to evaluate the extent to which he actually used knowledge of localization in all seven operations. What remains of the case material on the operations is examined, the accounts in unpublished sources and published versions compared, and Macewen’s use of knowledge of localization bearing on the claim for his priority evaluated. Part II concludes with citations from archival correspondence and the contemporary and near contemporary medical press confirming Macewen’s priority.     

Folklore from the Hebrides

THE WORSHIP OF NATURE. By Sir J. G. FRAZER. Vol. I. Macmillan &; Co., 1926. 8?″ x 5?″. Pp. xxvi + 672. 25s. Reviewed by H. J. Rose.

STERNGLAUBE UND STERNDEUTUNG. Die geschichte und das wesen der Astrologie. Von CARL BEZOLD und FRANZ BOLL. Dritte auflage von W. Gundel. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1926. Pp. xii+ 211. 8vo. Pl. 20 + 48 text ill. Map. 13s. 6d. Reviewed by M. Gaster.

THE CHARACTER OF KING ARTHUR IN ENGLISH LITERATURE. Door Dr. E. VAN DER VEN-TEN BENSEL. Amsterdam: H. J. Paris, 1925. 9½″ x 6?″. Pp. iv + 215. Reviewed by M. Gaster.

THE DOCUMENTARY SOURCES OF GREEK HISTORY. By M. CARY. Oxford: Blackwell, 1927. Pp. xi + 140. 7¼″ x 4?″. 6s. Reviewed by H. J. Rose.

DIE TEUTSCHEN VOLKSBÜCHER. By JOSEPH GÖRRES. Berlin: Herbert Stubenrauch, 1925. Sm. 80. Pp. xvi.+352 6s. Reviewed by M. Gaster.

NORWEGIAN FAIRY TALES FROM THE COLLECTION OF ASBJÖRNSEN AND MOE. Trans. by HELEN and JOHN GADE. (Scandinavian Classics, vol. xxiv.). Oxford: University Press, 1924. 7¼″x4?″. Ill. Pp. xiv.+250. Ils. Reviewed by M. Gaster.

RELIGION AND FOLKLORE OF NORTHERN INDIA. By WILLIAM CROOKE. Prepared for the press by R. E. ENTHOVEN. Oxford: Univ. Press, 1926. 8?″x5?″. Pp. 471. 21s. Reviewed by H. A. Rose.

JAMAICA PROVERBS. Collected by M. W. BECKWITH. Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation, Vassar College, N.Y., No. 6, 1925. 9″x6″. Pp. 137. Reviewed by W. Bonser.

Some Foreign Periodicals. Reviewed by W. R. Halliday.     

Dynamics of electoral expenditure and the ‘arms race’ thesis: The case of New South Wales

Calls for increased regulation are sometimes made in response to what is dubbed an ‘arms race’ in elections – a cost explosion in electoral expenditure driven by the competitive dynamics of elections. In 2010, New South Wales (NSW) adopted the first comprehensive caps on electoral expenditure in Australia on this basis. This paper examines the evidence for a cost explosion over the course of three NSW elections (1999–2007). It finds a significant but unevenly distributed increase in electoral expenditure – over 3 per cent per annum over and above inflation and the growth in voter population. In terms of explaining this spending increase, it finds a close relationship between electoral expenditure and the availability of campaign funds but a less clear one between such expenditure and the ‘winnability’ of the elections.

由于选举中发生的“军备竞赛”——选举的你追我赶造成选举成本的暴增——人们呼吁加强管制。2010年,新南威尔士对选举开销出台了封顶的详细规定,在澳大利亚尚属首次。本文考察了新南威尔士三个选举过程（1999—2007）中成本激增的情况。作者发现选举开销重要但分布不规则的增长——高于通货膨胀及选民增长百分之三。如何解释选举开销的增长呢？作者发现选举开销与选举资金获得的难易程度关系密切,而与选举获胜机会的大小的关系模糊。     

Prehistoric migration at Nebira, South Coast of Papua New Guinea: New insights into interaction using isotope and trace element concentration analyses

Migration is a commonly used explanation for cultural change in world prehistory, and is also a central theme in the prehistory of the Pacific Islands. However it is rarely subject to direct archaeological research. This paper applies strontium and oxygen radiogenic/stable isotope (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, δ¹⁸O), and trace element concentration (Ba/Sr) analyses to 27 individuals buried at the archaeological site of Nebira (ca.720–300 BP), located inland on the South Coast of Papua New Guinea. The analyses seek to identify non-local individuals within the population and provide a more in-depth understanding about the social identity of the possible migrants in this community.The strontium isotope data indicates that five individuals were non-local to Nebira, having possibly come from a coastal location. Correlation with biological data, such as age and sex, also indicates that the pattern of migration at Nebira was not sex or age specific. The results support the archaeological findings that suggest the inhabitants from Nebira were in contact with coastal communities during a period in prehistory of increased cultural interaction. However, despite the considerable isotopic variation identified in the Nebira sample, it is also demonstrated that more research is needed to identify the possible origins of these non-local individuals.