文化生态学

朱利安·斯图尔特是美国文化生态学大家,对考古学和民族学都有开拓性的贡献,本文虽然不长,但较全面系统地阐释了他文化生态学的基本思想。文化生态学认为社会是对周围环境适应的产物,文化生态学的研究即考察社会对其环境的适应过程。但文化生态学并不等于传统意义上的"环境决定论",它还同时考虑除环境之外其它因素对社会的影响,而且它认为社会与环境之间是双向的互动关系,社会固然要适应环境,但也影响乃至改造环境。社会对环境的依赖或适应程度随文化(特别是技术)的发展而变化,发展程度越低的社会(如史前社会)越受到环境的制约,这表现在社会结构等方面,但同时,构成文化的各个变量受环境影响的程度并非同等而是有所区别。随着文化的发展,社会越来越脱离自然环境的束缚,资源利用远远超出自身所在的范围,经济形态趋于专业化,社会结构上也成为一个更大组织的一部分。还要特别注意到的是,斯图尔特对生态因素的考察不仅包括自然环境,还包括了人自身的生物性特征,认为这可能也是影响文化特别是社会结构的基本要素之一。斯图尔特的文化生态学思想对于新考古学有着巨大的影响,特别是他所强调的文化的功能适应方面,对于人类早期社会的解释有十分重要的意义。但是随着考古学的发展,人类文化发展所展现出的复杂性和丰富性,远远超出了文化生态学所能提供的解释。生态因素固然可以很好地解释技术经济和社会结构问题,但对文化中的意识观念领域则无能为力,这是它的局限性。     

‘Un engin de torture,une baïonnette à crochets; une arme blanche déshonorée’: an historical-archaeological evaluation of the Sawback bayonets of the Deutsches Heer

ABSTRACT

The Imperial German Army (Deutsches Herr) was unique among the combatants in World War One (WW1) in issuing to a proportion of its soldiers a bayonet whose blade back was fashioned as a saw. A common belief developed quickly among the Allies that these sawback bayonets were weapons specifically intended to inflict a particularly vicious type of wound. After setting out the origins of this class of weapon and explaining their real purpose, the two main types of sawback bayonet available to the Deutsches Heer during WW1 are then concisely described. Its reputation as a weapon of especial barbarity is outlined, along with an overview of bayonet use in combat between the mid-nineteenth century and 1918, as evidenced by official sources, highlighting the lack of any specific contemporary references to the use of or the wounds caused by sawback bayonets. The article concludes by detailing the contemporary German sources relevant to its withdrawal from service use in 1917.     

The State and the Left in modern France

French historians have recently begun to pursue the historyof left-wing politics in a manner which suggests that the Marxistframe of reference has begun to disappear, even in this fieldof history. The eminent historian and public intellectual PierreRosanvallon is leading the way in the field of political andintellectual history, through his sustained examination of theState and the ongoing debate about French democracy. The connectionbetween history and current political discourse is important,and it is significant that historians are attempting to revisecommon perceptions of the evolution of French political institutions.Wide areas of new research have been opened out and this articlehopes to offer some reflections on how these new approachesto French political history may be used in future research.