19世纪70年代的英国农业危机及其影响

１８７３年,资本主义世界爆发了一次空前严重的世界性经济危机,它标志着自由资本主义发展到顶点并开始向垄断资本主义过渡,从而使１９世纪７０年代成为资本主义发展史上具有转折意义的关键时期。英国这个在资本主义世界一直处于中心地位的国家,在这次危机中未能幸免,...     

Lung cancer, chronic disease epidemiology, and medicine, 1948-1964

Beginning in the early 1950s, a series of epidemiological, biochemical, pathological, and animal studies demonstrated a link between cigarette smoking and lung cancer. A number of reputable scientists challenged these findings, but for a variety of reasons, including the behavior of the tobacco industry, historians have assumed that these objections were insubstantial and disingenuous. Viewing these objections in scientific and medical perspective, however, suggests that there was a legitimate and reasonable scientific controversy over cigarette smoking and lung cancer in the 1950s and early 1960s. That controversy had important consequences. A new chronic disease epidemiology emerged, transforming the role and importance of epidemiology to medical research. This new epidemiology supplemented Koch's postulates, establishing a statistical method that allowed for linking environmental factors to the etiology of chronic diseases. The 1964 report to the surgeon general, Smoking and Health, represented the denouement and codification of these developments. This reexamination of the scientific controversy over smoking in the 1950s and early 1960s provides an important context for understanding the subsequent public relations battles between the tobacco industry and public health after 1964.     

The search for a precise method of measurement in psychical experiments

Presents three brief case studies to show how cognition and psychic activity were explored as energetic and economic transactions in a variety of experimental settings. First, in the 1870's German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin began a search for an objective measurement of cognitive performance in which he engaged for several decades. His investigations resulted in a graphic representation of cognitive efficiency, the Arbeitscurve, delineating numbers of additions per time interval in close resemblance to representations of machine efficiency. Second, at the turn of the century American nutrition scientist and agronomist Wilbur Olin Atwater convinced himself in a series of precision measurements that the human motor was a perfectly closed input-output system and that any mental surplus in the form of cognitive energy transformation did not count as contradictions to the principle of the conservation of energy. Third, at the beginning of the 20th century and on the basis of Atwater's results, German psychiatrist Hans Berger stipulated a special form of psychic energy for mediating between the principle of the conservation of energy and mental causality. Berger attempted to quantify psychic energy as one factor of brain metabolism. In the three cases of precision investigations into psychic life presented here, the experimental space of psychophysiology turned mental activity into a form of machine-like behavior.     

The correspondence of Johann Bartholomäus Trommsdorff (1770-1837): more then a source book of pharmaceutical history

The aim of this paper is to present the publication of the correspondence of Johann Bartholom?us Trommsdorff (1770 bis 1837) and to inform about the history of this project as well as the methodical proceedings and the content of these letters. The opportunities and limitations of the modern Trommsdorff research, based on the publication of his correspondence, will be shown. His contacts have been manifold and expansive. He corresponded with many famous scientists in pharmacy, chemistry, medicine and with important people of intellectual origin. Trommsdorff was a highly important person of the international European relationships in the field of pharmacy. Many publications certify the importance of the Trommsdorff-correspondence. The publication of these letters has opened new biographical aspects and allows to follow the connections and ways of communication in the new age of the foundation of scientific pharmacy.     

Britishness, asylum-seekers and the northern working class: 1851

The arrival of a small group of Polish-Hungarian refugees in Liverpool in 1851 reveals a lot about contemporary political views in the United Kingdom. The refugees were members of General Wysocki's Polish legion, which had fought Russia and Austria during the Hungarian revolution in 1848-49. While British liberals had hailed the nationalist cause from a distance, they were made uneasy by the presence of the refugee republicans with radical ideas. For that reason, British liberals worked with the government to try to send the Hungarian refugees to the United States. On the other hand, tradesmen and artisans in Liverpool - who were drawn to the social democratic ideas of liberty expressed by the revolutionaries of 1848 - organized a successful campaign to grant the refugees asylum.     

21世纪的"海洋破碎带"

本简析了海洋的争夺史,在此基础上提出了本的中心议题—21世纪的“海洋破碎带”。探析了“海洋破碎带”形成的七大因素,即：①海洋霸权主义对海洋国际贸易通道的争夺;②国际间对海洋国土的争夺;③海洋生物资源的争夺;④海洋矿产资源的争夺;⑤南极大陆的争夺;⑥海军军备竞赛;⑦海缘政治形势日益恶化。阐释了21纪“海洋破碎带”分布的海域。最后指出,中国不仅是一个陆地国家,也是一个海洋国家,中国的海上安全已近底线。为此,中国必须树立新的海洋观念,建立强大的海军,保卫国家的每一寸海洋国土。