Strengthening Minds and Bodies Within the French School System. Physical Education for Boys and Girls Between 1936 and 1950

Physical education has been compulsory in France since 1880. Between 1936 and 1950, expansion intensified and extensive changes were made to course content. This article assesses the ramifications of these choices through an in-depth study of four variables that defined its instruction. Even if priority was given to generalisation and equal access to knowledge, research revealed an upsurge in the fight against real or presumed student vulnerability. At the time, a strong consensus emerged with the commitment to fight frailty. This was all the more the case for young girls as they belonged to a specific group with respect to their physical make-up. The school system stressed the relevance of instruction adapted to girls even if emphasis was placed on the cultural aspect of sport content. The pedagogical programmes put into effect for youths based on these guidelines confirmed this trend. This situation raised concerns as to the role of the school system in the development of social stereotypes through a discipline that would become the focus of the French education system.     

河患与官方应对:康雍乾时期的山东小清河治理及启示

清代初期小清河为患严重,康雍乾百余年中,山东历任主政者主要实施了四次大的治理工程,分别为康熙二十五年(1686年)山东巡抚张鹏治河、康熙三十三年(1694年)巡抚桑格对小清河中游的治理、康熙五十七年(1718年)巡抚李树德治河及乾隆三十七年(1772年)巡抚徐绩治河。数次修治各有得失,完工程度亦不尽相同,短期内取得了一定成效,但并未持久,小清河水患依旧严重。综合来看,政区地理方面的因素造成的地方官彼此扯皮,百姓肆意决堤,缺乏一个专司小清河治理事务的管理机构,康雍乾时期流域内人地关系的日益紧张以及流域内特殊的地质地貌是小清河治理成效甚微的四大导因。     

FLN et OAS: deux terrorismes en guerre d'Algérie

Au cours de la dernière guerre coloniale de son histoire, la France a eu à affronter de multiples sources de terrorisme. Cet article se propose d'étudier et de comparer les actions terroristes des deux principaux groupes y ayant eu recours: le Front de Libération Nationale et l'Organisation Armée Secrète. La comparaison permet de saisir les liens entre le terrorisme et les autres modes d'expression politique, d'une part, et de saisir les enjeux d'une telle violence en contexte colonial, d'autre part, en observant, en particulier, les manières dont l'Etat français y a répondu.     

SVEN OLOV LINDHOLM AND THE LITERARY INSPIRATIONS OF SWEDISH FASCISM

Very little research has been done into the leader of the most prominent Swedish fascist party of the interwar period, the leader of the Nationalsocialistiska Arbetarepartiet, Sven Olov Lindholm, in spite of extensive source material in his personal archive. This article explores the literary influences on his politics, which Lindholm cited in his private documents and interviews, both contemporary and post-war. The immediate impact of notable Swedish writers, poets especially, such as Verner von Heidenstam, Viktor Rydberg, Esaias Tegnér, and Bertel Gripenberg, is demonstrated. These authors, largely of the Swedish Romantic tradition, are shown to be parts of one major Scandinavian cultural current in particular, namely Gothicism (göticism), manifested through a centuries-long interest in the Old Nordic heritage. In Sweden, the influence of new far-Right ideas that made their way into the country in the 1920s intersected with Gothicism in unique ways, which gave Swedish fascists a peculiar relationship to both fascism and their national heritage. Ultimately, these literary Gothicist influences allowed a particular naturalizing codification of Swedish fascism in the 1930s. Under the influence of, above all, contemporary Finno-Swedish health specialist Are Waerland, Lindholm is shown to have actively shaped Swedish fascism in line with his literary exemplars.