NATIONALISM IN EARLY MODERN EUROPE

相似文献   

Learning across distances: an international collaborative learning project between Berlin and Turku

Many geographers graduating from universities enter an international and project-based professional life, which includes working in geographically dispersed project teams. In Europe, the Bologna process aligned study programs and supported student mobility to prepare students for such a work environment. However, research on higher education has reported few examples of international courses that include collaborative learning during which students have experience of both co-location and geographical dispersion. This paper reports on a pilot course that implemented international student-led research projects in two Geography Departments: the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and the University of Turku. We monitored the students’ learning processes via a survey that was administered at the beginning, middle and end of the course, complemented by observations, informal discussions and student team reports. We analysed the survey and observations within a proximity-distance framework to identify the key challenges and good practices for supporting collaborative learning. We developed a model for organising an international course that applies both geographical distance and co-location.     

The Secondary Products Revolution, Horse-Riding, and Mounted Warfare

Andrew Sherratt included horseback riding and chariotry in his conception of the Secondary Products Revolution, but his emphasis on the role of horses in warfare and on a Near Eastern influence in the earliest episode of horse domestication is viewed here as as an important shortcoming in his understanding of the process of horse domestication. Current evidence indicates that horses were domesticated in the steppes of Kazakhstan and Russia, certainly by 3500 BC and possibly by 4500 BC. Tribal raiding on horseback could be almost that old, but organized cavalry appeared only after 1000 BC. Riding might initially have been more important for increasing the productivity and efficiency of sheep and cattle pastoralism in the western Eurasian steppes. The earliest (so far) direct evidence for riding consists of pathologies on the teeth and jaw associated with bitting, found at Botai and Kozhai 1. Recent developments and debates in the study of bit-related pathologies are reviewed and the reliability of bit wear as a diagnostic indicator of riding and driving is defended.     

Reanimating Anarchist Geographies: A New Burst of Colour

Abstract: The late nineteenth century saw a burgeoning of geographical writings from influential anarchist thinkers like Peter Kropotkin and Élisée Reclus. Yet despite the vigorous intellectual debate sparked by the works of these two individuals, following their deaths anarchist ideas within geography faded. It was not until the 1970s that anarchism was once again given serious consideration by academic geographers who, in laying the groundwork for what is today known as “radical geography”, attempted to reintroduce anarchism as a legitimate political philosophy. Unfortunately, quiet followed once more, and although numerous contemporary radical geographers employ a sense of theory and practice that shares many affinities with anarchism, direct engagement with anarchist ideas among academic geographers have been limited. As contemporary global challenges push anarchist theory and practice back into widespread currency, geographers need to rise to this occasion and begin (re)mapping the possibilities of what anarchist perspectives might yet contribute to the discipline.     

Route Choice in Hilly Terrain

The orienteering route choice problem involves finding the fastest route between two given points, with running speed determined by various properties of the terrain. In this study, I consider only the effect of climbing or descending on running speed. If a runner's pace p (the reciprocal of speed) varies linearly with gradient m, the straight‐line route always is fastest. However, a nonlinear formulation for p(m), with d²p/dm² > 0, will more accurately model runners’ capabilities. As a result, critical gradients may exist for ascent and/or descent, such that optimal routes will never ascend or descend more steeply than the critical gradient. I review and propose several formulations for the pace function p(m) and calculate their critical gradients. In principle, the Euler–Lagrange equation can be used to find optimal routes between arbitrary points on any topography where the height can be expressed as a smooth function of horizontal coordinates. I obtain first integrals of this equation for idealized landforms: hillsides with straight contours and axisymmetric hills. Next, optimal routes are computed for various combinations of start‐ and endpoints on these landforms based on various pace functions. These routes are classified as either subcritical or maximal steepness: The former ascends or descends less steeply than the critical gradient; the latter takes the line of steepest ascent where it is not steeper than the critical gradient, but follows a curve at the critical gradient where the slope is steeper. In some cases, the optimal route zigzags up or down a hill along sections of a critical‐gradient curve. El problema de trazo y selección de ruta en terrenos accidentados (orienteering route choice problem) consiste en encontrar la ruta más rápida entre dos puntos dados, cuando la velocidad de desplazamiento está en función a varias propiedades del terreno. En este estudio, el autor sólo considera el efecto de subir o bajar sobre la velocidad de desplazamiento. Si el paso p de un individuo (la inversa de la velocidad) varía linealmente con la pendiente m, la ruta en línea recta siempre es la más rápida. Sin embargo, una formulación no lineal de p (m), con D2P / dm 2> 0, resulta en un modelo más preciso de las capacidades de los individuos que se desplazan por el terreno. Como resultado, es posible que existan gradientes críticos tanto para el movimiento de ascenso como el de descenso. En dicho caso, las rutas óptimas nunca ascenderán o descenderán por gradientes más pronunciados que las identificadas comode gradiente crítico. El autor revisa y propone varias fórmulas para una función de paso p (m) y calcula los gradientes críticos respectivos. En principio, la ecuación de Euler‐Lagrange puede ser utilizada para trazar las rutas óptimas entre puntos arbitrarios en cualquier topografía en donde la altura pueda ser expresada como una función suavizada de las coordenadas horizontales. El autor calcula las integrales de esta ecuación para dos formas terrestres idealizadas: laderas con contornos rectos, y colinas con simetría axial. A continuación, las rutas óptimas son calculadas para diversas combinaciones de puntos de inicio y destino de estos accidentes geográficos basados en varias funciones de paso. Una vez identificadas, estas rutas se clasifican ya sea como subcríticas o como de máxima‐pendiente. Las primeras ascienden o descienden gradientes menos pronunciadas que el gradiente crítico. Las segundas ascienden por la línea del gradiente más pronunciado que es menor que el gradiente crítico, pero siguen una curva en la gradiente crítica donde la pendiente es más pronunciada. En algunos casos, la ruta óptima se desplaza en zigzags hacia arriba o abajo de una colina a lo largo algunas secciones de una curva de gradiente crítica. 移动速度受制于地表形态的诸多属性,定向路线选择问题涉及给定两点之间最快路线查找。本研究仅考虑爬升或下降对移动速度的影响。如果奔跑者的步速p（速度的倒数）与坡度m呈线性相关,那么直线路线始终是最快的。然而,当d²_p∕ dm² > 0时,非线性方程p(m)具有更好的行进模拟性能。试验表明,在上坡或下坡的过程中存在一个临界的坡度值,相应地上坡或下坡的最佳路线坡度将一定不超过较陡的临界坡度值。本文总结并提出了函数p(m)的几个公式,并对其临界坡度值进行了估计。欧拉‐拉格朗日方程原则上可用于寻找任何地形中任意两点之间的最优路径,高度可表示为横坐标的光滑函数。首先,通过方程的一次积分得到理想化地形,即具有直等高线的山坡和对称的山地;然后在这些地形面上,基于起点和终点的多种组合和不同的步速方程计算最佳路线。计算路径被分类为次临界或最大坡度的路线：前者上坡或下坡的坡度大于临界坡度值;后者则在不超过临界坡度值时采用最陡上坡路径,但在坡度陡峭的地区遵循临界坡度曲线。在某些情况下,最优到达路径沿临界坡度曲线截面呈“之”字型曲折上下变化。     

Crystallographic and structural transformations of sedimentary chalcedony in flint upon heat treatment

The early occurrence of intentional heat treatment of silica rocks has recently become a key element in the discussion about the cultural modernity of prehistoric populations. Lithic vestiges are the only sources that remain of this process and the understanding of the material’s properties and transformations are essential for reconstructing the conditions and parameters applied during heat treatment. Several models of the structural transformations upon heating have been proposed in the current literature. These models are often contradictory and do not account for the most recent structural and mineralogical data on chalcedony. In order to propose a new model, we elaborated an experimental procedure and applied different techniques involving infrared spectroscopy, solid state NMR, X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. The results show that the major transformation to happen is the loss of silanole (SiOH) and the creation of new Si-O-Si bonds according to the reaction: Si?OH HO-Si → Si-O-Si + H₂O. This reaction starts between 200 °C and 300 °C and causes an increase in the hardness of the rocks. The maximal annealing temperature and the ramp rate are the functions of the ability of the structure to evacuate newly created H₂O and depend on the size of the specimen and the volume of its porosity. These results also show that the annealing duration at maximum temperature can be relatively short (<50 min) for a sufficiently large amount of transformation to be accomplished.     

SOMETIMES CLOSE IS GOOD ENOUGH: THE VALUE OF NEARBY ENVIRONMENTAL AMENITIES*

ABSTRACT An extensive empirical literature exists, showing that variations in region‐specific amenities can account for persistent differences in real wages across regions. However, this literature has considered only amenities in the same location as the household. This paper argues that environmental amenities at some distance from but accessible to urban areas may lead to negative compensating wage differentials. We use a general equilibrium framework and data from the 1995 Current Population Survey to calculate implicit amenity prices based on measures of distance to environmental amenities. Our results suggest that amenities outside the metropolitan area do generate compensating wage differentials, as workers are willing to accept lower wages to live in accessible proximity to “nice” places. This implies that these places provide a positive externality to those communities that find them accessible. The estimated effects are quantitatively important, suggesting that these externalities should be taken into account in policy making.