Ethnic belonging of the children born out of rape in postconflict Bosnia‐Herzegovina and Rwanda

Sexual violence has been used as a weapon of war in ethnic conflicts, and forced impregnations have been central to this strategy. Scholars however disagree on whether the cultural assimilation to the maternal group influences these children's identities, or whether they are perceived as belonging to the enemy group (Carpenter; Nikolic‐Ristanovic). Drawing on preliminary qualitative findings collected in 2013 in Rwanda and Bosnia‐Herzegovina, this paper analyses the ethnic identification imposed by the enemy group, the mothers and their community on the children born out of rape. It first explores how the mothers' ethnic identities are often subordinated to their fathers' ethnic background, and how this then justifies their social exclusion from their maternal ethnic group. This paper suggests that sexual violence is extremely effective in ensuring the continuation of the ethnic conflict in the aftermath of the violence by attacking the children's senses of belonging.     

Freezing and melting behaviors of H2O‐NaCl‐CaCl2 solutions in fused silica capillaries and glass‐sandwiched films: implications for fluid inclusion studies

Fluid inclusions of the H₂O‐NaCl‐CaCl₂ system are notorious for their metastable behavior during cooling and heating processes, which can render microthermometric measurement impossible or difficult and interpretation of the results ambiguous. This study addresses these problems through detailed microscopic examination of synthetic solutions during cooling and warming runs, development of methods to enhance nucleation of hydrates, and comparison of microthermometric results with different degrees of metastability with values predicted for stable conditions. Synthetic H₂O‐NaCl‐CaCl₂ solutions with different NaCl/(NaCl + CaCl₂) ratios were prepared and loaded in fused silica capillaries and glass‐sandwiched films for microthermometric studies; pure solutions were used with the capillaries to simulate fluid inclusions, whereas alumina powder was added in the solutions to facilitate ice and hydrate crystallization in the sandwiched samples. The phase changes observed and the microthermometric data obtained in this study have led to the following conclusions that have important implications for fluid inclusion studies: (i) most H₂O‐NaCl‐CaCl₂ inclusions that appear to be completely frozen in the first cooling run to ?185°C actually contain large amounts of residual solution, as also reported in some previous studies; (ii) inability of H₂O‐NaCl‐CaCl₂ inclusions to freeze completely may be related to their composition (low NaCl/(NaCl + CaCl₂) ratios) and lack of solid particles; (iii) crystallization of hydrates, which is important for cryogenic Raman spectroscopic studies of fluid inclusion composition, can be greatly enhanced by finding an optimum combination of cooling and warming rates and temperatures; and (iv) even if an inclusion is not completely frozen, the melting temperatures of hydrohalite and ice are still valid for estimating the fluid composition.     

Changes in the Abundance and Diversity of Proteaceae in South‐western Australia: a Review of an Integrated Palaeoenvironmental Study

South‐western Australia is a globally significant hotspot of Proteaceae diversity. This review reports on changes in the abundance and diversity of Proteaceae in south‐western Australia. Using palynology, the data were obtained from three sediment sequences from the Eocene, Pliocene and Holocene, as well as a modern pollen rain study, in the context of a vegetation history framework. The total percentages of Proteaceae pollen in pollen counts indicate that the number of Proteaceae in the vegetation are highest at present, slightly lower, yet still high in the Eocene, reduced by the Pliocene and lowest in the Holocene. It was found that Proteaceous genera can contribute up to 50% of the total modern pollen rain. Sediment from Lake Lefroy showed Nothofagus‐dominated rainforest occurred in the Middle to Late Eocene. Proteaceae species were at least as diverse as today, contributing up to a maximum of 42% of the total pollen rain, and varying across small lateral distances. A laminated Pliocene age sequence from Yallalie confirmed other studies that south‐western Australia was covered by a rich vegetation mosaic consisting of heath and wet rainforest elements. Proteaceae species were a consistent component of the counts, although diversity and abundance (maximum 5%) were low. A Holocene record from Two Mile Lake, near the Stirling Range, recorded little environmental change. Proteaceae species were noted in low abundance, at a maximum of 3.5% of the total pollen count. It is likely that both changing pollination mechanisms and changes in associated vegetation are important in determining the dispersal of Proteaceous pollen.