Distribution of dental caries in an early 17th century swedish population with special reference to diet

The distribution of dental caries was determined in complete and partial human dentitions from a 17th century (1621–1640) city graveyard excavated in Gothenburg, Sweden. Sixty‐three adults and two children, divided into five different age groups, were studied. Altogether 949 teeth (943 permanent and six deciduous) were examined macroscopically using a dental probe and X‐rays. A high number of teeth had been lost post‐mortem. An increase in ante‐mortem tooth loss was found with increasing age. Sixty per cent of all individuals and 12% of all teeth showed signs of caries. The number of carious teeth per subject increased with increasing age. The highest prevalence of individuals with caries was found for the age group 26–35 (69%). Caries were most prevalent in the first, second and third lower molars (60%), while the incisors and canines in the upper and lower jaws were the least affected teeth (1%). The occlusal surface was the area most susceptible to caries (45%), followed by the buccal cemento–enamel junction (16%) and the approximal contact point (11%). This study shows that, although consuming a diet believed to have been lower in sugar content compared to modern populations, caries did affect a rather high number of individuals living in Sweden during the early 17th century. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Turner Teeth and childhood caries in a protohistoric California Indian population

Three instances of unusual enamel defects are reported from a late prehistoric and protohistoric non-agricultural California Indian population. The defects, consisting of irregular absence of enamel over much of the crown of single premolars, with no corresponding hypoplastic defects in the remainder of the dentition, are typical of Turner teeth. Such defects are a consequence of pulp exposure from severe caries infections in the primary dentition. Their presence is suggestive of unusually high levels of childhood caries experience for a non-agricultural population, a suggestion borne out by examination of the deciduous dentitions.     

Stress near the start of life? Localised enamel hypoplasia of the primary canine in late prehistoric mainland Southeast Asia

Localised hypoplasia of the primary canine (LHPC) is characterised by roughly circular defective areas of thinned or missing enamel on the labial surface. This defect is rarely reported in bioarchaeological research. Using samples from late prehistoric mainland Southeast Asia, this paper documents the prevalence of LHPC to produce baseline data for this defect. The samples are from seven archaeological sites in Thailand and collectively span from ca. 4000 to 1500 BP. In the combined samples, 32/79 (40.5%) of individuals and 47/199 (23.6%) of teeth had LHPC. The high occurrence of LHPC may suggest there was poor maternal and infant health. There is also a high occurrence of caries associated with LHPC, which has implications for the assessment of deciduous dental health. This paper stresses the importance of the collection of dental enamel defect data from deciduous teeth including LHPC in bioarchaeological research.     

Comparing the Chronological Distribution of Enamel Hypoplasia in Rogowo,Poland (2nd century ad) Using Two Methods of Defect Timing Estimation

The frequency and chronological distribution of enamel hypoplasias were assessed in a Roman Period population of the Wielbark culture from Rogowo, northern Poland, dated to the 2nd century ad . Hypoplasias were recorded on permanent incisors, canines, and premolars of 52 skeletons. The position of linear defects on the crown surface was measured and then converted to the age of occurrence using two methods: a conventional method that employs the chart of enamel development for the permanent teeth, constructed by Massler et al. (1941) in Swärdstedt's (1966) modification, and the method by Goodman & Song (1999), which corrects for hidden cuspal enamel. Hypoplastic defects were found in 48.1% of examined cases. Linear defects [linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH)] were observed in 38.5% of individuals and in 22% of investigated teeth. The chronological distribution of LEH according to the conventional method revealed two peaks of defects: one at 2.6–3.0 years of age and the other at 4.1–4.5 years of age. The method that accounts for hidden cuspal enamel also provided two peaks, but they occurred at later ages: 3.0–4.0 and 4.6–5.0 years of age. The prevalence of hypoplasia in the Rogowo population in comparison with other European populations of the Roman Period seems to be rather low for both individuals and teeth affected. This may indicate advantageous living conditions, which are supported by archaeological data that suggest general well‐being of the Wielbark people. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Report of three fused primary human teeth in an archaeological material

Fusion of deciduous teeth can appear in several ways, usually involving two teeth but occasionally three. The frequency of this anomaly is reported to be low and few cases have been described in the scientific literature. Fused teeth in the archaeological record are rare because of the destructive taphonomic processes to which bones and teeth are subjected. Previous research in this field has only dealt with cases of two fused deciduous teeth. To our knowledge, there have been no reports of three fused teeth in the anthropological literature. The present paper presents a case of three fused primary teeth and a succedaneous supernumerary permanent tooth in a 5‐year‐old child discovered in a late medieval cemetery in northern Italy. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nonmetric morphological characters of deciduous teeth in Japan: diachronic evidence of the past 4000 years

The efficiency of nonmetric (discrete) characters of the deciduous dentition in assessing affinities of human populations was investigated in seven population samples from western Japan. The Neolithic Jomon (the Late and Latest stages, 4000–2300 BP ), the Aeneolithic Yayoi (2300–1700 BP , divided into materials from the Tanegashima Island and other western Japan materials), the protohistoric Kofun (1700–1300 BP ), the medieval Kamakura & Muromachi (800–400 BP ), the early modern Edo (400–130 BP ) and modern Japanese were compared for 17 traits. From the analyses of univariate and multivariate comparisons, close affinities between the Jomon and the Tanegashima Yayoi populations and between the other Yayoi, Kofun, Medieval, Edo and modern Japanese populations were indicated. This result coincided with the results obtained from the investigations of permanent dentition. The Jomon and Tanegashima Yayoi populations showed high frequencies of middle trigonid crest and cusp 6, while the other Yayoi and post‐Yayoi Japanese populations expressed high frequencies of shovelling, cusp 7 and distal trigonid crest. As simple tooth crowns are characteristic of their permanent teeth, the traits abounding in the Jomon and the Tanegashima Yayoi deciduous dentition were unique to their deciduous dentition. Different gene frequencies in juveniles and adults, or a heavy functional demand on their deciduous teeth, may be responsible for this difference. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exceptional rates of dental caries in a scandinavian Early Iron Age population—A study of dental pathology at Alvastra, Östergötland,Sweden

The dental status of Early Iron Age agricultural populations in Sweden has not been extensively documented. The aim of this study was to record caries status in human remains from an Early Iron Age burial ground, Smörkullen, at Alvastra, Östergötland, Sweden. The study included 96 adults and 50 subadults and comprised 1794 permanent teeth in the adults and 468 permanent and 221 deciduous teeth in the subadults. The caries frequency was exceptionally high, afflicting most of the adults (92.6%): 46.2% of the teeth examined showed signs of caries disease. Most of the lesions were shallow. However, around 60% of the adult individuals had moderate and severe lesions, which probably had an immediate impact on health. Lesions were most common in the cervical region and this is probably related to dietary patterns where the starchy, sticky food tended to accumulate around the necks of the teeth. Children showed low caries frequency, whereas most juveniles (91.7%) were affected. Most of the teeth with alveolar bone loss showed no signs of cervical or root caries lesions. However, in cases of moderate and severe loss of alveolar bone, seen mostly in the older age group, the frequency of cervical and root lesions was higher. Few initial caries lesions were observed, indicating an aggressive pattern of disease in this population. The lack of gender‐related differences suggests that the diet was similar for both sexes, across all age groups. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Developmental Stress in Immature Hominines from Late Pleistocene Eurasia: Evidence from Enamel Hypoplasia

The differences between Middle and Upper Palaeolithic cultures from Europe have been likened to the contrast between generalized and complex hunter–gatherers. A test of this model is undertaken by comparing the types, amount, severity and timing of episodes of enamel hypoplasia between the two periods among specimens from western Europe and the circum-Mediterranean area. The earlier sample consists of 59 dentally immature individuals with 128 primary and 154 permanent teeth while the later sample consists of 47 dentally immature individuals with 162 primary and 125 permanent teeth. It was predicted that the Upper Palaeolithic would show more variation in the attributes noted above as a consequence of increased social differentiation. While the prevalence (50% of individuals) and severity of enamel hypoplasia do not differ between the samples, the Upper Palaeolithic component is significantly more variable in the types and timing of enamel defects. Localized hypoplasia of the primary canine is absent from the Middle Palaeolithic but very common among Upper Palaeolithic children. Earlier work has linked this enamel defect to craniofacial osteopenia due to low bioavailability of vitamin A. Linear enamel hypoplasia peaks at age 3·5 years in the Middle Palaeolithic sample but is as common at age 2·0 as 5·0 years in the Upper Palaeolithic sample. The age distribution differs significantly. Peak age at stress, combining all types of enamel hypoplasia, is 3·5 years in the Middle Palaeolithic and 0·5 years in the Upper Palaeolithic. The major contrast between the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic in terms of enamel hypoplasia is the advent of stressful episodes in early infancy in the Upper Palaeolithic. This is attributed to the low bioavailability of vitamin A due to the synergistic effects of malnutrition and infection exacerbated by a net increase in population density among socially competitive family lineages.     

A Case of Early Childhood Caries from Late Roman Ancaster,England

This paper presents a differential diagnosis of pathological changes observed in the deciduous dentition of a child aged 3–4 years, recovered from a Late Roman (c. ad 270–410) cemetery at Ancaster, England. The entire maxillary dentition exhibited areas of missing enamel and erosion of the underlying dentine, which was most pronounced at the lingual surfaces of the anterior teeth, and lingual and occlusal surfaces of the molars. Additionally, the mandibular second molars and mandibular right first molar displayed superficial enamel erosion of the buccal surfaces. Radiography indicated normal enamel density, and no further dental pathology was identified. Conditions considered in a differential diagnosis included amelogenesis imperfecta, fluorosis, perimolysis, xerostomia‐related caries and early childhood caries (ECC). The nature and distribution of lesions implicates ECC – also known as ‘nursing caries’ or ‘baby‐bottle caries’ – as the most probable diagnosis. The potential significance of the findings for studies of infant health and feeding practices in past populations is discussed. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Investigation of Possible Fluorosis in Human Dentition Using Synchrotron Radiation

Macroscopic analysis of collections of archaeological human dentition from sites in the United Arab Emirates varying in chronological age and geographical location revealed the presence of enamel defects on the buccal, lingual and occlusal surfaces of some of the teeth. The morphology of these enamel defects suggested a possible diagnoses of fluorosis. Because not all teeth in the samples studied exhibited the defect, a conclusive diagnosis could not, however, be offered. Given that fluoride can enter the crystal lattice of hydroxyapatite (the major mineral component of calcified tissue including bones and teeth), and that the uptake of higher than optimal levels of fluoride can alter the molecular structure of dentition, it was thought that the application of X-ray diffraction to this problem may aid a more conclusive diagnoses. This paper details the application of synchrotron radiation to this problem. Initially, details of the archaeological problem are outlined. This is followed by a discussion of synchrotron radiation and the advantages it has over conventional X-rays. The materials and methods used in the analysis are provided, followed by a discussion of the results. While further work is required to fully attribute the enamel defects to the effects of fluoride, this paper illustrates that synchrotron radiation, in particular X-ray diffraction, can be applied to archaeological materials as a means of quickly and effectively obtaining a structural analysis.     

A longitudinal study of tooth growth in a single individual based on long- and short-period incremental markings in dentine and enamel

Ground sections of teeth from a single individual revealed approximately 30 fluorescent lines in the dentine resulting from successive courses of tetracycline antibiotics given over a period of approximately 12 years. In addition, many teeth showed long-period incremental markings in the dentine. Short-period daily cross-striations in the enamel were used to calculate the periodicity of the long-period incremental lines in both enamel and dentine. The incremental markings in the dentine were then used to calibrate the time of administration of each of the courses of tetracycline antibiotics. Enlarged micrographs of the teeth, constructed using fluorescence microscopy, were used to measure the increase in height of different teeth throughout the growth period on each occasion the tetracycline antibiotics were given. The times of initial mineralization of the teeth and the duration of crown formation were also determined for each tooth section. Line plots of tooth height against age were computed and used to calculate the rate of increase in tooth height during crown and root formation for one example of each tooth type. Initial rates of increase in height during enamel apposition and coronal dentine formation were fast, between 10 μm and 14 μm per day. During the latter phase of crown formation and during early root formation, tooth height increased at a slower rate of between 4 μm and 6 μm per day. Rates of increase in tooth height then rose to between 13 μm and 26 μm per day during the second half of root formation before falling off to a rate of approximately 4 μm per day during root completion (as the root apex formed). The times of initial crown mineralization and the total crown formation times estimated in this individual were all within the range known for modern humans but there was comparatively early mineralization of the third permanent molar. These findings are discussed in the context of other studies on human dental development.     

Seasonality and season of birth of modern and late Neolithic sheep from south-eastern France using tooth enamel δO analysis

Stable oxygen isotopic analysis of tooth enamel was used to investigate seasonality and season of birth in sheep. Analyses were performed on the teeth of eight modern sheep bred at the Carmejane farm in south-eastern France and born in different periods of the year. This reference data set confirms that oxygen isotopic records in the second and third molars can be used to differentiate between sheep born in late winter and those born in early autumn. The results show that inter-individual variability in the timing of tooth formation is low for the second lower molar and more pronounced for the third lower molar in this population. The duration of the process of enamel mineralization has been estimated at approximately six months. The teeth of four sheep and two goats from the late Neolithic site of Collet-Redon in south-eastern France were analyzed using the same methodology. At this site, lambing occurred between the late winter and early spring. A slight difference appears in the seasonal sequence recorded in sheep and goat, although it cannot be determined, whether this is due to different timing of tooth development, or an actual shift in the birth period. From the distribution of slaughter ages and birth period, it is suggested that domestic caprines were killed throughout the year and that Collet-Redon was probably a permanent settlement.     

Rates of dentine mineralization in permanent human teeth

Previous experimental studies have estimated linear rates of dentine formation in modern humans to be close to 4μm day⁻¹. In this study a method similar to that first adopted by Kawasaki, Tanaka and Ishikawa⁵ was used to estimate linear rates of dentine mineralization over a period of 1200 days in both the cusps and cervical regions of several permanent tooth types. All teeth were from the same individual. Rates in the cusps of teeth with the tallest crowns were estimated to be between 5 μm day⁻¹ and 6 μm day⁻¹. This is higher than previous estimates in permanent tooth crowns, although rates in the cusp of a first permanent molar, where cusps were less tall and cuspal dentine therefore less thick, were close to previous estimates of 4 μm day⁻¹. Despite this variation in cuspal rates, mineralization rates were linear in all cusps studied over a long period of time. Rates in the cervical region, either close to the enamel dentine junction or to the cement dentine junction, were estimated to be between 1.3 μm day⁻¹ and 1.5 μm day¹¹, much slower than reported previously. Rates in the mid-portion of the dentine, in both the lateral part of the crown and in the cervical one-third of the root, rose steadily to match rates in the cuspal region, but then slowed towards the pulp chamber. These data extend the findings of previous studies on permanent human dentine. They demonstrate a wide range of mineralization rates in permanent dentine and provide a more secure basis for judging different rates in different locations of different human tooth types.     

Problems and pitfalls in the diagnosis of linear enamel hypoplasia in cheek teeth of cattle

Prevalence and intensity of enamel hypoplasia have been used as markers of generalized physiological stress during dental development in a wide range of mammalian taxa. We studied cattle (Bos taurus) cheek teeth exhibiting morphological characteristics that are of relevance to the diagnosis of enamel hypoplasia in this and other bovid species. These characteristics were multiple, more or less horizontally arranged (waveform) lines or grooves in the cementum of the tooth crown and the adjacent root area, leading to an imbricated appearance of the cementum. On macroscopic examination of tooth surfaces, these lines resembled linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH). Microscopic analysis of tooth sections, however, revealed that the lines occurred in the cementum only, and that the underlying enamel did not exhibit morphological irregularities. In cheek teeth of older cattle, a thick cementum layer is regularly found in the cervical crown portion and the adjacent root area. Apposition of this cementum is related to the uplifting of the teeth from their alveoli, a process that compensates for the shortening of the tooth crowns due to occlusal wear. In the studied specimens, a pronounced periodic nature of tooth uplifting and the related deposition of cementum is the likely cause for the observed imbricated appearance of the cementum. While this phenomenon may be misinterpreted as representing a case of LEH, presence of enamel hypoplasia in bovid teeth may be overlooked when the defects become filled with coronal cementum and are therefore not apparent on external inspection. This was the case in one of the cattle teeth analyzed by us, in which the hypoplastic enamel defects were, however, clearly discernible in ground sections. Microscopic analysis of tooth sections is recommended for recording of LEH in bovid teeth in cases where macroscopic examination of tooth surfaces alone does not produce unequivocal results.     

Micro‐CT Imaging and Analysis of Enamel Defects on the Early Late Pleistocene Xujiayao Juvenile

Dental pathologies and enamel defects in East Asian hominins have rarely been reported. Here, we systematically document and describe a suite of enamel defects in the Xujiayao juvenile maxilla, an East Asian hominin from the early Late Pleistocene that may represent an unknown hominin lineage. In addition, we determine the chronology of growth disruptions represented by matched linear enamel hypoplasias, evaluate the long‐held hypothesis that the large brownish pit on the I¹ is evidence of dental fluorosis and assess the utility of micro‐computed tomography (micro‐CT) techniques in analyzing enamel defects. With the use of binocular microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and micro‐CT imaging techniques, the Xujiayao teeth were found to exhibit a high number of pit‐form defects seldom seen in the fossil record. By matching the timing of linear enamel hyperplasia across multiple teeth, a minimum of five developmental disruptions were identified, indicating that the Xujiayao juvenile experienced several growth disturbances during its short lifespan. Our SEM and micro‐CT analyses suggest that the large pit on the I¹ is an enamel hypoplasia due to its morphology and pre‐eruptive enamel thinning. It is not a post‐eruptive fluorotic pit, and there is no evidence of chalkiness or opacity associated with dental fluorosis. The micro‐CT technique made it possible to verify the presence of enamel hypoplasia and to more precisely quantify defect dimensions, especially in unerupted teeth and shallow hypoplasias that are difficult to detect by binocular microscopy or SEM. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of enamel ultrastructure in archaeology: The identification of Ovis aries and Capra hircus dental remains

Ultrastructural features of deep, intermediate and superficial enamel were quantitatively assessed for the mandibular first permanent molars of 10 specimens each of the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and goat (Capra hircus). The means of a number of variables differed interspecifically at high levels of statistical significance, especially with regard to the enamel of intermediate depth. A canonical discriminant function analysis employing nine variables at all three enamel depths resulted in the correct taxonomic assignment of 95% of the specimens comprising the present sample. These results, coupled with the simple preparative and analytical methods presented here, may enable archaeozoologists to utilize enamel ultrastructure in order to discriminate between fragmentary dental remains of these caprine species.     

Evaluating sources of variation in the identification of linear hypoplastic defects of enamel: a new quantified method

Assessment and interpretation of the presence of developmental defects of enamel formation that result from childhood experiences of growth disruption, enamel hypoplasia, is a standard part of almost any systematic bioarchaeological assessment. However, different identification methods lead to different results. This study presents a new method of defect identification that offers a quantitative criterion for establishing defect presence rather than relying solely on observer judgement. It then compares this with a standard field approach to assessing enamel hypoplasia and a non-quantified microscopic approach in order to determine (a) if traditional methods of identifying enamel hypoplasia under little or no magnification offer the same information about the experience of childhood health as methods that examine dental enamel growth microscopically, and (b) the effect of using a quantified criterion to identify enamel hypoplasia. A case study using simultaneously developing teeth in one individual is presented where observations of defect presence are made both macroscopically and microscopically and with and without this novel metric method. The results demonstrate that the chosen scale of observation is a critical variable in identifying linear hypoplastic defects of enamel. Defects that occur in the more cervical regions of a tooth are ‘missed’ by methods that rely on macroscopic observation or the unaided visual judgement of the observer. This finding has considerable implications for the interpretation of reported enamel hypoplasia prevalence.     

Enamel Ultrastructure of Cattle from the Quaternary Period in India

Abstract

The present paper examines tooth enamel of three species of cattle, Bos acutifrons, Bos namadicus and Bos indicus, which are supposed to have been phylogenetically related and belong to the Quaternary period. It aims to show whether in a short geological time span of 2myrs, the changing environs that cattle were exposed to during the Early Holocene have caused any microstructural changes in their tooth enamel.

Mammalian teeth exhibit a very complex arrangement of prisms in the enamel. The prisms are bundles of hydroxyapatite crystallites, arrangement of which is genetically determined and subject to evolutionary change. Hypsodonty or high crowned molars are such examples where concomitant masticatory stress factors near the enamel-dentin junction (EDJ) are known to have affected and altered the enamel microstructure in several large mammalian genera. Modified radial enamel in the deep enamel layer in some ungulates, including cattle, is an adaptive response to these stress factors which appeared much earlier (Tertiary) in the evolutionary history of these large mammals.

The cattle enamel analysed here revealed several levels of structural complexity indicating its functional designations. The schmelzmuster in cattle are formed of three enamel types: radial enamel (outer enamel), Hunter-Schreger Bands (mid enamel), and modified radial enamel (inner enamel). There is an increase through time in the percentage of Hunter-Schreger Bands (HSB), which cover up to about 68% of the entire enamel surface among recent cattle. The modified radial enamel and radial enamel do have a receding trend in the Holocene, compared to their Pleistocene ancestors.     

Toddlers in Transition: Linear Enamel Hypoplasias in the Hadza of Tanzania

Bioarchaeologists often use linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH) as a proxy for systemic physiological stress in prehistoric populations. Increased incidences of LEH have been observed in many cases associated with rapid social or environmental changes, such as with the Neolithic transition and agricultural intensification. Still, there have yet to be studies published of LEH incidence among living peoples in the process of transitioning from foraging to a farming economy. It is important to document LEH occurrence in living groups with known subsistence strategies to better contextualise interpretations of bioarchaeological populations. Here, we present LEH data for a sample of the Hadza of Tanzania. We compare LEH incidence and frequency on the permanent anterior teeth of individuals who spent their infancy and early childhood (i) in the bush consuming wild foods; (ii) in the village with a weaning diet dominated by domestic cereals; and (iii) transitory, dividing their time between the bush and village. Our results demonstrate that Hadza living in the bush during the period of tooth formation less frequently have LEH on these teeth, and have fewer of them on average, than do villagers. This is particularly so for the comparison of men. The transient group is intermediate in LEH incidence, although not significantly different from the bush and village samples. A lower LEH frequency in the bush Hadza is consistent with a diet that meets nutrient requirements of tooth formation, but higher incidence in the village sample suggests interruption of enamel secretion, most likely due to malnutrition. Such studies provide valuable context with which to interpret and understand bioarchaeological evidence, and to track effects of sedentisation on the biology of modern foragers. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Linear Enamel Hypoplasia and Age‐at‐Death at Medieval (11th–16th Centuries) St. Gregory's Priory and Cemetery,Canterbury, UK

Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) is a macroscopically detectable band‐like dental defect, which represents localized decrease in enamel thickness caused by some form of disruption to a child's health. Such dental deformations are utilized in osteoarchaeological research as permanent markers of childhood physiological stress and have been extensively studied in numerous ancient human populations. However, currently there is no such data for medieval populations from Canterbury, UK. Here, LEH is examined in the context of age‐at‐death in human burials from the medieval St. Gregory's Priory and adjacent cemetery (11^th–16^th centuries), Canterbury, UK. The cemetery and Priory burials represented lower (n = 30) and higher status (n = 19) social groups, respectively. Linear enamel hypoplastic defects were counted on mandibular and maxillary anterior permanent teeth (n = 374). The age and sex of each skeleton were estimated using standard methods. Differences in LEH counts, age‐at‐death, and LEH formation ages were sought between the two social groups. Results indicate significantly greater frequencies of LEH in the Cemetery (mean = 17.6) compared to the Priory (mean = 7.9; t = −3.03, df = 46, p = 0.002). Adult age‐at‐death was also significantly lower in the Cemetery (mean = 39.8 years) compared to the Priory burials (mean = 44.1 years; t = 2.275, df = 47, p = 0.013). Hypoplasia formation ages differed significantly between the Priory (mean = 2.49 years) and Cemetery (mean = 3.22 years; t = 2.076; df = 47; p = 0.034) individuals. Results indicate that childhood stress may reflect adult mortality in this sample, and that the wellbeing of individuals from diverse social backgrounds can be successfully assessed using LEH analyses. Results are discussed in terms of the multifactorial etiology of LEH, as well as weaning‐related LEH formation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.