古代北方的水质与民生

水质与民生密切相关,中国南北地理环境不同决定了水质的差异。一般而言,古代南方的日常生活用水以江河湖泉为多,外在"所染"为其水质问题的主要方面;北方民生用水以井水为多,井水自身"所含"的水质问题则较突出,由此而引发的地方病也和南方地区有较大差异。井水咸苦长期困扰北方居民的日常生活,它曾对历史时期北方国都营建产生重要影响,对各级治所的经营也有所制约。水质是生态环境问题也是社会问题,不同时代、地域、阶层对北方水质有不同感知,历经实践浸染与文字流布,这一日常生活的身体实践逐渐演变成为一种知识、观念乃至于文化。     

The Impact of Urbanisation on the Bed Sediments of South Creek,New South Wales

The textural and geochemical characteristics of the bed sediments in South Creek are examined. The bed substratum in the urbanised reaches differs from that of the rural reaches, in terms of the volume and size of the fine matrix sediment and the concentration of heavy metals. The impact of urbanisation on the river-bed sediment is variable, with less matrix than ‘expected’ within the substratum of the urban reach and more than ‘expected’ in the below urban reach. The urban matrix sediment is also significantly finer in comparison to the rural reach matrix sediment. Heavy metal concentrations within the urbanised matrix sediment are up to 800 times greater than background levels and are considered to be indicative of extreme contamination despite only SO years of urbanisation.     

Coupling Hydrotoponymy and GIS Cartography: A Case Study of Hydrohistorical Issues in Urban Groundwater Systems,Porto, NW Portugal

The aim of this multidisciplinary study is to retrospectively examine hydrohistorical issues, namely hydrogeographic, hydrotoponymical and hydrogeological features, in order to assess the evolution of the Porto urban groundwater system (NW Portugal). To achieve these goals, the comparison of two main field inventories in a large urban region was performed by (i) historical mapping of sources and groundwater data from scientific reports spanning the late 17th century to the early 20th; and (ii) hydrogeologic and hydrotoponymical field inventory performed under current conditions. These field inventories permitted the location of springs, dug wells, fountains, public washing places and underground water galleries, which collected groundwater to supply the population of Porto until the early 20th century. This study also allowed the development of a hydrotoponymical classification for urban areas and a field hydrotoponymical inventory data sheet. This research integrated several techniques based on historical hydrogeography, hydrogeology and urban geosciences. The results of the field inventories were combined into both a database and a Geographical Information System (GIS) platform. This unified methodology allowed a cross‐check and analysis of several levels of information, namely hydrotoponymy, hydroclimatology, hydrogeology, structural geology and geomorphology. This perspective led to an assessment of the evolution of the quality of water resources in large urban areas over time. In addition, the role of hydrotoponymical features is presented in order to support the hydrogeological conceptual model for large urbanised areas.     

Visualizing Pollution: Representations of Biological Data in Water Pollution Control in the United States, 1948–1962

After the United States Congress passed the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, biologists played an increasingly significant role in scientific studies of water pollution. Biologists interacted with other experts, notably engineers, who managed the public agencies devoted to water pollution control. Although biologists were at first marginalized within these agencies, the situation began to change by the early 1960s. Biological data became an integral part of water pollution control. While changing societal values, stimulated by an emerging ecological awareness, may explain broader shifts in expert opinion during the 1960s, this article explores how graphs changed experts’ perceptions of water pollution. Experts communicated with each other via reports, journal articles, and conference speeches. Those sources reveal that biologists began experimenting with new graphical methods to simplify the complex ecological data they collected from the field. Biologists, I argue, followed the engineers’ lead by developing graphical methods that were concise and quantitative. Their need to collaborate with engineers forced them to communicate, negotiate, and overcome conflicts and misunderstandings. By meeting engineers’ expectations and promoting the value of their data through images as much as words, biologists asserted their authority within water pollution control by the early 1960s.     

1900-1949年间上海水乡景观蜕变的复原与分析

近代以来上海城市物理空间的构建,大幅度地改变了该区传统的水乡景观;尤其是城市道路网络的扩张,造成原有河浜体系的快速退化并进而产生了一系列的自然环境与社会问题。这种城市化进程中自然环境的嬗变,在1900年后逐步达到白热化,但至今未有成果对这一显著过程进行科学的复原与解析。本文运用GIS手段与历史文献考证相结合的方法,力图微观地复原1900-1949年间上海水乡景观蜕变的具体过程,并对其内在驱动机制及社会回应作出综合分析。     

A Role for Geomorphology in Integrated Catchment Management

Catchments (watersheds) are integrated through water movements. Water moves sediments; and the translocation of materials has geomorphic and pedological responses. Fertiliser and pesticide residues and other toxic substances are also transported by water, in solution and attached to sediment particles, affecting various ecological components of catchments. The insertion of pollutants is directly caused by land‐use practices. In turn, land uses are influenced by the pedo‐geomorphology of the catchments (uplands, valley sides, flood plains and terraces, spurs and hollows, convexities and concavities; position in the upper, middle or lower catchment; and by catenary relationships). Therefore catchment management must deal with interrelationships amongst human activities and various geomorphic elements. Several case study examples from southwestern Australia demonstrate the importance of geomorphology in catchment management. They include: rates of hillslope erosion and translocation of P in micro‐catchments within a drainage basin context; stream salinisation; accumulation of heavy metals in stream sediments; geomorphic elements influencing the spread of weeds and the erosion of access tracks; and some relationships between valley‐side land uses and stream morphology. The incorporation of these and other issues in a management strategy is then illustrated. Complex skills are involved in producing and implementing a management strategy, including but extending well beyond those of the geomorphologist.     

New Regionalism and Planning for Water Quality Improvement in the Great Barrier Reef,Australia

New regionalism encompasses a diversity of approaches to address regional planning problems. Within Australia, the Great Barrier Reef Water Quality Protection Plan was developed to enhance water quality within the World Heritage-listed Great Barrier Reef, and the plan gave responsibility to regional, natural resource management bodies to undertake several actions. This paper evaluates these initiatives in the light of the emerging theory of new regionalism and highlights six main lessons: up-scaling of the catchment approach to a reef-wide approach is essential in order to improve water quality, but must be complemented by cross-regional collaboration; new governance and institutional arrangements and strengthened partnerships must be effectively integrated; culture and history are important in determining the most effective management approaches; pilot projects must move to comprehensive and strategic implementation; science is important but needs to incorporate other branches of knowledge; and economic incentives are important in encouraging the implementation of best practices, but delivery needs to be flexible. We conclude that the new regional approach is appropriate for addressing complex, multi-scale problems such as water quality, and has incorporated several key principles of new regionalism, but that the process must move quickly to a higher level of commitment and application.     

上海老城厢:一个江南城市的景观演变史及其动力机制

本文以上海老城厢城市景观演变的历史过程为主线,分析了主导这一过程的驱动因素及其相互间的关系。在人为侵占与河浜自然属性的交互作用下,"因浜成路"一直是上海老城厢独具特色的城市扩展方式;19世纪下半叶,传统的环境基础加上西方公共卫生观念的介入,使原来民间层面上的"因浜成路"发展为官方主导下的"填浜筑路",主干河浜消亡的速度骤然加快。这虽然局部改善了老城厢的市容与卫生状况,却对整体的水网生态和后来的城市环境造成了不利影响。这一过程中的内在规律,恰从区域可持续发展的角度,对城市化进程中人与自然间的耦合关系和互动尺度做出了注解,因而具有一定的启发意义。     

Environmental influences on skilled worker migration from Bangladesh to Canada

We conducted focus groups in Toronto with 44 recent skilled worker immigrants from Bangladesh to explore whether their decisions to migrate to Canada may have been influenced by environmental problems. Previous research has documented how floods, cyclones, droughts, and seasonal precipitation variations affect rural‐urban migration patterns within Bangladesh, and to its neighbours. Most participants had not experienced such environmental hazards, having lived in Dhaka prior to migrating. However, Dhaka's ongoing problems with air and water pollution, sanitation, lack of green space, and food adulteration were cited by 70% as being relevant considerations for the decision to migrate. The degree of influence varied considerably among participants. Roughly 16% said pollution was their primary motivation for leaving, household members having suffered from illnesses traceable to air pollution or poor sanitation. Another 54% stated that Dhaka's environmental problems were part of a wider range of quality‐of‐life concerns that had some influence on their decision. The findings suggest that current migration to Canada is not connected with environmental migration that takes place within Bangladesh, but that urban environmental problems combined with other social, economic, and political factors can help drive migration.     

Evaluating the Impacts of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones on the Environment and Farmers’ Practices: A Scottish Case Study

Nitrate vulnerable zones (NVZs) have been established throughout Europe to tackle diffuse pollution. This research investigates the attitudes and practices of farmers in the River Eden catchment, within the Strathmore and Fife NVZ in eastern Scotland, and explores how these changed between 2002 and 2011. Attitudes were investigated using interviews; efficiency of nutrient use was evaluated using farm gate nutrient budgets (NBs). Most of the 16 farmers regard NVZ regulations as burdensome and costly; however, attitudes to NVZs became more positive during the period. NBs demonstrated that arable farms generate the least nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) surpluses, dairy the most. N efficiency improved on nine farms and declined on two; P efficiency improved on 12 farms and declined on two. Overall, the 16 farms were using 13% less N and 19% less P in 2011 compared with 2003. Water quality data demonstrate that Nitrate N in the catchment's main rivers dropped between 2004 and 2011 by a mean of 15.5%, whereas mean phosphate P declined very little. Legacy P and Inefficient sewerage treatment facilities may explain the latter finding. Results demonstrate that NVZ regulations, combined with economic pressures, have affected farmers’ attitudes and behaviour, resulting in significant improvements in surface water quality.     

‘Torrents of Terror’: the August 1998 Storm and the Magnitude,Frequency and Impact of Major Floods in the Illawarra Region of New South Wales

The Illawarra Region some 80 kilometres south of Sydney is characterised by a prominent coastal escarpment that rises to 700 m within 12 km of the coast and forms a locus for frequent, high intensity rainfall events. One of the most recent recorded events occurred on 17 August 1998 with rainfall intensities at several pluviometers exceeding 120 mm hr^‐1 over a duration of one hour, with up to 249 mm falling in 3.5 hours during the main storm burst. Detailed pluviometer data indicate that the storm was non‐stationary and moved down catchment producing a widespread zone of 120 mm hr^‐1 intensity rainfall over a 30 minute duration across mid‐lower catchment areas after similar intensity but longer duration rainfall in catchment headwaters. Slope‐area reconstructions of peak discharge indicate that small catchments on the escarpment within the zone of maximum intensity experienced close to 100% rainfall‐runoff relationships, with peak discharges correlated to short duration (<1 hr) peak rainfall intensities. Widespread erosion occurred particularly where urban development had encroached on natural water courses. Debris/hyperconcentrated flows originating from both anthropogenic and natural sediment sources caused damage to urban areas. This paper provides an overview of the spatial and temporal characteristics of the 17 August 1998 storm, the hydrologic and geomorphic response of the streams, and the nature of damage to urban areas. It reassesses the frequency of recent high‐magnitude rainfall/flood events in the region, discussing the relationships between rainfall intensities, estimates of flood magnitudes and stormwater channel capacities.     

The rise and ruin of a medieval port town: A reconsideration of the development of Julfar

Julfar was a major port town of the Persian Gulf during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries AD. A possession of the Hormuzi empire, it was a lucrative source of taxes and pearls, and a port of trade for northern Oman, tapping into maritime trading networks connecting the Middle East with Africa, India, Southeast Asia and China. The site is found north of modern Ras Al-Khaimah, UAE. Julfar Al-Nudud was previously considered to be a late suburb of an urban core, Julfar Al-Mataf, and is located on a creek opposite the latter. However, excavations in 2010 indicated that Al-Nudud was part of the original urban core, which had grown up on either side of the creek. Moreover, re-examination of previous work in Al-Mataf, where a large mosque and fortification were excavated (by British and French teams), shows that the two areas followed different trajectories. Significant occupation in Al-Nudud and southern Al-Mataf (revealed by previous Japanese excavations) ended before the start of the sixteenth century, while use of the mosque and fort in central Al-Mataf continued into the seventeenth century, albeit discontinuously. A revised concordance of the phases derived from the work of various archaeological teams is therefore proposed.     

An Inventory of Australian Estuaries and Enclosed Marine Waters: An Overview of Results.

The results of a recently completed inventory of Australian estuaries and enclosed marine waters are summarised The inventory was compiled to gain a national perspective on the ecological status of estuaries and to ufentify research and management priorities The database shows that most estuaries in northern and western Australia have been relatively unaffected by human activity. In contrast estuaries in eastern and southern Australia generally have lower water quality and greater catchment clearance and a high percentage face real threats to their conservation values The estuaries in N.S. W. and VicroM have the most ertensive literature available. The results suggest that, given clearly defined management priorities, many representative and important features can still be adequatety conserved in a national system of estuarine reserves Subject areas where more research is needed include individual catchment characteristics, water quality, fihehs and conservation values and more detailed mapping. especially for seagrass beds and intertidal mud banks.     

Local government perceptions of water related issues in rural Australia

Water supply has long been regarded as a limiting resource in the further development of Australia. Active management has been necessary in both more densely settled areas and in areas of moderate settlement density but low rainfall such as the Murray-Darling system. The recently released Water 2000 Report details current knowledge about the quality and distribution of these resources. Following on from this Report this article presents perceived problems with water quantity and quality (in particular, salinisation) obtained from a survey sent to rural local governments in late 1982. The survey requested information on the relevance of twenty-two land use issues, known from earlier work to be representative of common concerns throughout Australia. Public perceptions were remarkably similar to the results of the Water 2000 Report. Water quantity/quality and salinisation issues were the sixth and seventh most commonly cited issues throughout Australia, but were of much greater concern in specific areas. Tasmanian local governments reported major problems of water supply, those in southwest Western Australia exhibited a very high level of concern with dry land salinisation, local governments in the Murray-Darling Drainage Division reported concern with salinisation, droughts, floods and general water quality, while local governments in the Gulf of Carpentaria Drainage Division consistently cited flooding as being a major problem. Information from surveys such as this, and others where the respondents are the end-users, need to be combined with expert opinion in order to increase the effectiveness of the management of our water resources.     

贵州省的城市生态环境问题

本文以贵阳等九座城市为例,从城市的自然环境和人类活动影响两方面,探讨贵州城市的生态,环境问题,以及协调人地矛盾的主要对策。全文分为以下三大部分:首先探讨城市的自然环境特征,说明贵州城市的形态结构,水土资源及城市扩展均受"喀斯特"环境的制约,其生态环境极为脆弱。表现在水土资源贫乏,平地少又很分散,地形封闭,旱涝和地貌灾害频繁等。第二论述城市的生态环境问题:以煤烟性空气污染,水体有机污染和交通噪声污染为主。SO₂的污染极为严重,酸雨污染,城市河段及湖(库)污染普遍存在;4/5的城市交通噪声超过国家标准;1/2城市区域环境噪声污染严重。最后提出重建城市生态环境的主要对策。     

城市空间扩展视野下的近代上海河浜资源利用与环境问题

本文将中国近代城市化的首发之地——上海作为研究对象,以开埠后租界城市空间扩展的微观过程为视角,系统探讨其河浜资源利用与相关环境变迁的内在机制与驱动力,并对深层的制度背景进行分析。本文的研究结论是:从城市建立的初期开始,租界工部局就仅出于实用目的对自然河浜的排水功能加以利用,以私人化的地产分布、地产开发需求以及马路的拓建规划为基本导向,对河浜进行无序填没和管道化改造,而忽略了方格状感潮河网的环境脆弱性以及河浜除排水以外的其他生态功能。这种受城市空间扩展自然驱动的河浜利用方式,导致了严重的河浜形态破碎与功能紊乱,成为近代以来上海地区黑臭河道不断产生的主要原因。其制度根源主要在于:租界直接承袭了19世纪英国城市环境改造理念,并受到自治市制度的局限。     

特大型风景名胜区居民社会调控雏议——以青海湖国家重点风景名胜区为例

针对青海湖国家重点风景名胜区这一特大型风景名胜区的生态及社会经济地位和作用,综合分析了其社会发展的现状特点及存在问题。在此基础上,对青海湖国家重点风景名胜区内的居民社会调控问题进行了初步研究。提出了风景名胜区优化城镇及乡村居民点体系、加强经营管理、健全社会组织、分区分类实施居民社会调控的基本思路和主要措施。从而为特大型风景名胜区的居民社会调控以及景源保护与开发、经济社会发展、生态环境建设探索有效的途径。     

LEGISLATION AND REALITY: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR SANITATION AND HOUSING QUALITY IN URBAN WORKERS’ HOUSING IN THE ANCOATS AREA OF MANCHESTER BETWEEN 1800 AND 1950

Abstract

This paper will look at some of the excavated material for British urban workers’ housing, built and occupied during the period 1800 to 1950 in the Ancoats area of Manchester: Ancoats was notorious amongst contemporary writers and campaigners for its poor quality and overcrowded housing. This archaeological evidence has emerged as a result of developer-funded excavations and represents part of a growing body of data collected since 1990 from within many of the great industrial cities of Britain (Glasgow, London and Manchester), as well as excavations in the numerous smaller industrial manufacturing towns of the UK. In this study particular attention is given to the impact of national legislation, private acts and local by-laws aimed at improving industrialised living conditions and the build quality of 19th-century workers’ housing occupied into the 20th century. Using excavated examples from more than 50 houses within Ancoats, it will be argued that archaeology can provide a distinctive and unique view of urban domestic life in the 19th and first half of the 20th century, whilst demonstrating continuity in occupation patterns during this period. The evidence for urbanised, industrial living also compliments the more extensive archaeological studies of manufacturing industry from the period.     

博物馆文物保存环境质量标准研究

我国大气污染严重,环境质量恶化使文物受损影响日益明显。上海、重庆、广州三市博物馆环境质量检测调查说明其现状与文物保护的要求还有相当距离,有些甚至还处于污染相当严重的地步。博物馆文物保存环境影响因素主要是温湿度、光线(可见光、紫外光)、污染气体(包括尘埃),不同材质的文物受各种环境因素影响在程度上是不同的。有的是起主要作用,有的则是起协同增效作用。研究其反应机理、反应速率,量化它们之间的关系,将是制定出文物保存环境质量标准的重要依据。 文物保存环境质量标准要求达到最大限度降低环境因素对文物所造成的损害,但受治理技术、监测技术、经济的许可、合理程度等方面的制约,制定分级标准将有利博物馆的环境治理实施和监测。