浅谈明清时期牙人牙行的积极作用——以商品交易中的农民、小生产者为研究视角

明清时期,随着商品经济的繁荣,大量的农民和小生产者进入了商品交换的市场,牙人牙行的存在弥补了他们经验不足易受骗的劣势,在交易的时间、地点的选择上考虑了他们的实际需求,还为他们提供必要的信息和资金,所以牙人牙行对农民和小生产者而言,积极作用是很明显的。     

牙行的演变

中国统治者由执行传统的重农抑商政策到高唱提倡实业、鼓励商战的口号,是近代历史上的一大转变,政府改变了压抑商业、歧视商贾的态度,对商业的封建束缚随之放松.在这种大气候下,商业出现了由封建垄断走向资本主义自由竞争的新趋势.“官盐”制度走向衰亡而代之以食盐自由竞销政策,是这种新趋势的必然产物.牙行控制的松懈是由封建垄断走向自由竞争的又一事例.牙行是一种经纪商,起源甚早,牙行在买卖双方之间起中介作用,以促成其交易,成交后向买卖双方收取佣金.亦有先出资收购客货,再向商号、洋行批发者.武汉旧有牙行很多.牙行从两个方面束缚商业,一是客商从外地贩运货物来汉,必须带货投行,通过牙行联系买主,撮合生意,若自行与买主交易,向商号销售,则为非法.二是牙行通过乡谊关系串连招揽客货,形     

近代华北乡村市场中的包税制——以直隶省获鹿县为例

作为买卖双方的中介机构,牙行在乡村市场自古有之,而到了近代,政府为满足自身攫取资源的需要,采用了包税制度,这种制度与乡村市场传统的抽用体系产生矛盾,使得维持村庄组织运行与乡地制度的基本保障与必要成本从根基上造成破坏,引发了乡村社会的多重危机。     

清代皖江流域的市场基础设施建设

清代皖江流域市场的发展离不开当地市场基础设施的建设和完善。大体而言,桥梁、渡口、河道等交通设施的建设密切了市场与其腹地、本地市场与外地市场的经济联系,从而为当地市场网络的构建提供了可能;救生船、航标、消防设备等安全设施的建设为往来人员和流通货物提供最基本的安全保障;政府对市场外部治安环境的净化和牙行对市场内部交易秩序的管理为当地市场健康发展创建了良好的环境秩序。     

“歇家牙行”经营模式的形成与演变

在明清商贸民营和赋役货币化的变革过程中,作为客店之别称的歇家,开始与"牙行"相互转化结合,并形成一种新的"歇家牙行"经营模式,即集客店、经纪人、仓储、贸易,甚至运输、借贷于一体的新的商业运营模式。"歇家牙行"在内地,上承"邸店"、"塌房",下接"字号"、"坐庄"及其他商业经营模式;在藏边地区,取代"茶马司"的职能,成为明中叶至民国主导该地区的贸易模式之一。     

论明代居间信用

明代的牙行居间是民间自发形成的具有交易代理性质的商业信用运营活动。居问信用规则对居间行为人有一定的约束作用。居间信用的良性运转有利于商人的成功经营,居间信用的缺失对委托者的经济利益构成侵害。居间信用主要以财产保证和人情关系为基础,制度化的保障没有形成。     

说说汉口的行栈

旧时在城市商业中有一种行业,称为“行栈”,更早时称为“牙行”.所谓“牙帖”就是它的营业执照.这种行栈是指城乡市场中的买卖双方说合交易,并抽取佣金的商行.在旧社会里,这种行业起到出口、内销的中间桥梁作用,是一种不可缺少的贸易手段.汉口号称为九省通衢,水陆交通便利,是全国商品主要集散地之一.硚口的南端面临汉水的出口处,从历史情况来看,汉正街就是古夏口的一条主要街道,是夏口镇的精华.在硚口,除了一般的商户外,其最大的行业就是“行栈”.     

我国历史上的经纪人及行业组织考略

经纪人是社会经济发展和商品交换的产物，我国古代称专司中介人职能的经纪人为驵侩、牙人等。唐宋时期经纪人开始介入官府事务，至清代，随着中西文明的碰撞，产生了官设行商，近代以后逐渐演变为一种特殊的经纪人──买办。经纪人的行业组织萌芽于唐代的邸店，宋代发展为塌房，明代演化为牙行，清康熙年间形成公行，鸦片战争后，随着外商获得各通商口岸自由贸易的特权，洋行产生，行商制度因而消亡。     

清前期江南地方政府商业管理初探

商业与市场管理,在明清地方行政中的地位并不突出,以往地方行政史与基层社会管理的研究对此也不甚重视。从清代前期江南省、府、县三级官员的若干政令文告集中,可以看到地方政府对于田土、房屋产权交易俗例的规范,货币与度量衡、牙行的管理,市场秩序的维持,以及某些市场活动的管制,均给予了一定程度的关注。然而,由于缺乏切实有效的政策手段,这些告示文榜中力图实现的管理目标,实际上很少能够达成。但从中折射出来的地方政府关于商业政策的一般理念以及官商关系的复杂性,对于相关学术问题的讨论来说,仍然具有启示意义。     

清代粮价奏报流程及其数据性质再探讨

清代的粮价奏报有两种,一种是粮价清单,其形成过程可能是:知县(州)的月报粮价→知府的通府概括性粮价→布政使的粮价清单;另一种是粮价细册,其形成过程可能是:知县(州)的短期奏报→布政使的粮价细册,或知县(州)的短期奏报→知府→布政使的粮价细册。粮价清单中的府级粮价从空间维度上,可能是辖下两个价格极端县的价格,从时间上看,可能是每月下旬或者下半月的价格。州县的粮价数据来自经济功能相近的米铺、粮行和牙行的呈报,价格的具体性质很难判断——是批发价、零售价还是产地价,这和该州县的市场中心地级别和其在粮食运销层级中的位置有一定关系。     

Advances in Morphometrics in Archaeobotany

ABSTRACT

Morphometric analysis offers an alternative or augmentation to traditional archaeobotanical methods to address differences within and between plant species and their remains, refining and enhancing taxonomic resolution. Morphometrics, the measurement of size and shape, and the multivariate statistical analysis of generated quantitative variables, have long played a major role in biological research, including plant taxonomy and systematics, although its application in archaeobotany is relatively recent. Over the last few decades, there has been an increasing interest in the use of morphometrics for analysing a varied range of archaeological plant materials (mainly seeds, pollen, phytoliths, and starch grains). In particular, morphometrics have contributed to the study of the domestication and spread of many cereals world-wide, as well as that of other taxa including legumes, underground storage organs (USO), and fruits (such as olives, grapes, and dates). This paper reviews current methodologies, recent applications, and advances in the use of morphometrics in archaeobotanical research, discusses its role in exploring major research questions, and suggests possible future directions for its use.     

杏开二月

已经是二月仲春了,大地柔软,天气慢慢热起来了。一场习习的春雨,浇得人心头酥酥的。我第一次注意到,家门前的杏树开了。枝干上,星星点点,挑着几朵白,轻盈得很,把薄薄的心打开,驻足美的枝头,观赏人间烟火。背后是灰灰的庭院,低矮的     

Geography in Higher Education in Australia

Within the last 30 years, geographical information systems (GIS) have been used increasingly in the training of geographers. On the basis of the philosophy of technology and instrumental genesis, we sketch how the use of instruments interacts with learning processes and outline how this can be studied. We empirically analyse students' learning processes and the influences of teaching practice in an introductory course in GIS. We show that students have different strategies for creating their personal instrument for spatial thinking and how teaching interacts with the students' learning processes. Finally, we discuss how GIS may gradually alter future professional development of geographers.     

America in Speech and in Deed

The author's primary aim in what follows is to fully articulate Chantal Delsol's critique of late modern universalism as an attempt to depoliticize the individual for the sake of replacing politics with morality. The result of this depoliticization is a quasi-pantheistic cosmopolitanism that not only effectively denies the significance of individuality, despite rhetorically lionizing it, but also undercuts the freedom of individual conscience that makes moral choice possible. Genuine political prudence and moral judgment are subsequently replaced by the rigid exactitude of a technocratic analysis that reintroduces the "clandestine ideology" it was, despite protestations to the contrary, intended to eliminate. The unhappy paradox produced by the attempt to replace the necessary limitations of political judgment with the universality of a priori moral decree is that a new set of culturally and historically idiosyncratic political attachments are surreptitiously introduced beyond the pale of reasonable debate and disagreement. Delsol's measured response is not a precipitous rejection of universalism as such but a rehabilitation of it that recaptures the Christian moral realism at its core.     

Tibetan-Inhabited Area in Deqen in Development

Deqen, honored as “Shangri La”,is located in the area where three rivers meet to form one in the Henduan Mountains straddling the borders of Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet. The Deqen Tibetan Ethnic Group Autonomous Prefecture, founded in September 1957, is the only Tibetan autonomous prefecture in Yunnan Province but one of 10 in the