秦汉帝国“新地”与徙、戍的推行——兼论秦汉时期的内外观念与内外政策特征

秦汉帝国是伴随"新地"的推展和边界的扩张而确立的。政府在派遣"新地吏"同时,往往推行徙民实边、行役戍边政策。在后来的发展中,实边较戍边更为边策所重。其原因既涉及财政、舆论,也有对防御效能的考虑。两汉时期,内地与边郡之间的差别有所扩大,影响到朝廷内外政策的差异。边郡军事负担甚巨,而且因军队屯驻造成经济残破与社会动荡。边郡维持运转,常需邻郡供给、中央调控、募民输粟及军士屯田。"文景之治"、"光武中兴"中轻徭薄赋的惠政,与边政状况直接相关。     

秦汉边郡概念小考

郡在设置之初就与边地有着密切的关系,传世文献中《史记》最早出现"边郡"一词。边郡成为秦汉一个习见的概念,它的认定是要有一定标准的,必须有"障徼"等边防设施才能称为边郡。边郡意涵其实有广义狭义之分,有时并不能严格按"有障徼"的边境线所在来划分界定。边郡与内郡的众多差异中,生产方式的差异有决定性的意义,这些差异影响到人们的习性风气。在中国领土幅员初步成形的时期,秦始皇、汉武帝在位时有过两次大的开边扩土的浪潮,这也是边郡设置的两个高潮,设置过众多的边郡。     

试论秦汉“边郡”的概念、范围与特征

"边郡"一词最早见于西汉,"边郡"概念的形成与秦汉国家治理边疆的实践密切相关。"边郡"与"内郡"的差异不仅体现在地域范围上,更体现在制度设计上,"边郡"是在统一郡县制的前提下实行特殊制度的地区。     

20世纪80年代以来的秦汉边郡研究

在秦汉地方行政结构中,内郡与边郡在行政职能、吏员设置、民族构成、法律制度上存在着诸多差别。研究秦汉边郡,对于探索秦汉时期边地制度与内地制度相互影响融合的规律、秦汉边疆治理、民族关系、秦汉国家结构发展变化、地方行政机制的运作规律等有重要的意义。本世纪初,西北简帛的发现,极大推动了边郡研究。进人20世纪80年代以后,中外学者在前人的基础上,分别从秦汉中央政府分层次、差别化治理,边郡防御系统,边郡职官设置,屯戍,文书运行等不同方面探讨了秦汉边郡的情况。笔者根据搜集到的相关论著,对20世纪80年代以来有关秦汉边郡研究做一简要综述,以期对相关研究的进一步发展有所裨益,疏漏之处,祈望方家指正。     

东汉初年西北边郡的省并与徙吏民问题

省郡指边郡的放弃,意味着行政体系在空间上的收缩;徙民则是指农耕居民向内地迁移,意味着农耕区的内缩;徙吏则体现了行政机构的撤销,意味着行政建制的部分省弃,与省郡在性质上是一致的,但是有程度上的区别。一般来说,前者可以涵盖后两者,省郡的同时亦是徙吏民;但是后两者不等于前者,徙吏民并不代表省郡。笔者还指出东汉初年的省郡和徙吏民并非消极退让之举,而是保民安边之策,并为西北边防形势的好转创造了条件。     

两汉时期高句丽的封国地位

公元前 37年高句丽在汉玄菟郡高句丽县建国时 ,高句丽人已经在西汉郡县制的管辖之下生活了 70多年。高句丽王被王莽政权贬为侯 ,说明其在西汉末为王国 ,东汉光武帝复其王号 ,也证实了高句丽在两汉时期的封国地位。随着高句丽的发展 ,东汉时期高句丽曾侵扰辽东、玄菟、乐浪等地 ,但这都属于边郡地方的冲突 ,高句丽作为边郡封国的地位没有改变。     

辽东属国再探讨

辽东属国设立于汉安帝建光元年(121年),设置的主要背景在于东汉初年乌丸的内附,直接原因是安帝时期鲜卑与高句丽对幽州的侵扰。辽东属国首县昌辽(昌黎)经历了从西汉辽西郡东部都尉治所,到东汉初辽东郡西部都尉治所,最后到辽东属国都尉治所的变迁。东汉末年,辽东属国废于公孙氏政权。曹魏灭亡公孙氏政权后,鲜卑内附,复置辽东属国,后改其为昌黎郡,并为晋所继承。     

浅谈秦代地方职官——以里耶秦简为例

秦代郡的军事主管起码有两级官职设置。郡尉执掌一郡之军事,职能范围非常广泛,因此其身边还有假尉来辅佐。在郡尉下还设有郡司马,同样是掌管军事相关工作,并且在某种情况下郡司马还可以兼任假尉。里典是秦代是秦代最基层的官员之一,但并不是里的行政主管,每里可跟据户数设置多名里典。     

两汉农都尉的设置数额及其隶属关系

本文对两汉农都尉进行了研究,认为它是设在边郡专门主持屯田事务的长官;其始置时间为汉武帝元狩四年(前119)后不久,最早设置的地点在朔方至令居一带;以后,逐渐形成了大致每一边郡设置一个农都尉的格局。两汉农都尉在行政上由最高当局和郡太守双重领导,只在屯田业务上由大司农掌管。     

金太宗时期女真人内徙考CSSCI

伴随金对辽、对宋战争的胜利,金朝的占领区域空前扩大。出于对占领区军事、政治统治的需要,金太宗时从东北地区迁徙大量女真人,以军事屯驻和政治移民两种形式入主中原。屯驻的女真人遍布于淮河以北地区,而其他女真民户主要分布在今河北省和山东省,其次为今北京市和天津市。太宗时期约有百万女真人口迁离本土,是有金一代女真人内徙中原规模最大的一次。女真人的南下,加快了边疆民族与中原民族的交流融合,在提高自身发展的同时也带来了一些问题。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.