Spatial/temporal mismatch: a conflation protocol for Canada Census spatial files

The Canada census is one of the chief sources of demographic and socio-economic data for researchers in this country. Census variables are linked to geography files that allow researchers using geographic information systems (GIS) to view and analyze spatial data. Some of the most useful analysis, however, is based on changes in attribute values over time and space. Analysis of spatio- temporal events such as shifting migration patterns or changes in the distribution of health status permits a more dimensioned perspective than the viewing of static spatial phenomena. The analysis of spatio-temporal phenomena is limited by major changes in the spatial framework (e.g., location of road networks and other spatial entities) between national censuses. This paper addresses this limitation by (i) illustrating the extent of spatial mismatch between the 1996 and the 2001 census; (ii) examining attempts to rectify this problem in other jurisdictions and (iii) presenting a 'made-in-Canada' solution for conflation of census geometries. We believe that this solution will enhance the ability of Canadian researchers to describe and analyze socio-economic, health and demographic shifts across time and space. The research is supported by an ftp site for downloading the census geography rectification software presented in this paper.     

BEFORE THE DELUGE: CANADIANS ON FOREIGN OWNERSHIP, 1920–1955

More Americans now reside in Canada than at any time since the Vietnam War. This article documents and analyzes the migration, settlement, and identity of US-born residents in three Canadian cities. My work helps fill the gap in the scholarly literature on issues related to international migration at the Canadian–US borderlands. The article's overarching goal is to illustrate that transnationality, as exhibited by US immigrants in Canada, is far more complex than prior studies of transnational identity have indicated. Findings from this study indicate that transnational linkages and identities are geographically and temporally contingent and are, as such, a reflection of both time and place. My comparison of the shifting identities of American migrants who reside in three different metropolitan areas in Canada allows a more critical analysis of the ever-shifting terrain of transnational identities as they are expressed in different contexts. Data analyzed for this study were compiled from the Canadian census for the years 1961 through 2006, survey questionnaires, unstructured and structured interviews, and on-site field work.     

Trends in the residential mobility of seniors in Canada, 1961–2006

This article examines residential mobility for seniors 65 years of age and older in Canada using census data from 1961–2006. We addressed three questions. First, have seniors been increasingly likely to change their residential location within Canada or alternatively become increasingly likely to age‐in‐place? Second, has the in‐migration of seniors to Canada from other countries become more pronounced over the years? Third, does the residential mobility of seniors vary by age and sex? We used census data to calculate the percentages of seniors who changed their residence in the five‐year periods prior to each of the 1961–2006 censuses and the percentages of seniors who moved in the previous year for the 1991–2006 censuses. We calculated the percentages of seniors making local moves, longer distance moves within the same province, moves from one province to another, and moves to Canada from another country. We found that rates of residential mobility for seniors tended to increase in the 1961–1981 period but have been lower and relatively consistent from 1986–2006. We found no evidence to suggest a pattern of sustained increase in residential mobility of seniors. We conclude that Canadian seniors tend to age‐in‐place and that when seniors do change residence, the likelihood of residential mobility decreases with the distance of the move and decreases with age. Nevertheless, the likelihood of changing residence may increase for seniors 75+ years of age who need assistance and are at risk of institutionalization. We found that senior women were more likely to change residence locally than senior men. Finally, we found that from 1961 to 2006 between 0.8 percent and 1.4 percent of seniors had migrated to Canada in the five years prior to each census from other countries and that this pattern has fluctuated over the past half century with no clear trend.     

Notes on the Cameroon province (with special‐reference to the Bamenda division)

The location decisions of settlers to Upper Canada, 1782‐1851, are related to several factors. Initial settlement cores resulted from the previous pattern of French occupation and the need to strengthen the border with the United States. The availability of surveyed land influenced location decisions throughout the period. Of less significance were the land‐granting procedure and the various official policies which prompted land speculation and resulted in areas of reserved land.     

Communities,families and migration: some evidence from Cornwall

Abstract

Taking its cue from Pooley and Turnbull's (1998) claim that there is no evidence of any difference in the propensity to migrate by region or settlement size, this article investigates the appropriate scale for migration research. It presents some preliminary findings from a micro-level study of three occupationally contrasting communities in Cornwall in the second half of the 19th century. Reconstructing the migration histories of a cohort of children from the 1851 census enumerators' books and making use of local and online census and civil registration index databases, the study identifies some clear differences in migration patterns and propensity at the community level. Moving from patterns to processes it argues that labour markets and occupational structures remain the most important explanatory variables structuring migration, but that these were mediated at the individual level by the influence of the family which played a key role in facilitating or deterring movement.     

The Difficult Place of Deserted Coasts in Archaeology: New Archaeological Research on Cooks Beach (Pukaki), Coromandel Peninsula,New Zealand

Sites which have been occupied semi-continuously in the past present some inherent difficulties for archaeology. Here we present new research from a coastal site on the North Island of New Zealand at Cooks Beach where anthropogenic vegetation changes are seen using microfossil analysis of obsidian tools, sediments and pit fill. The results indicate the initial presence of people in AD 1300–1400 followed by subsequent periods of disuse or abandonment and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) cultivation. Around the time of initial settlement, obsidian from this location is found at sites across the country. After AD 1400 the area appears to be deserted for a century or more, after which we see evidence for the cultivation of sweet potato in AD 1500 as evidenced by extensive soil modification and numerous storage pits. There is no evidence of a permanent settlement at the site. The geographic distribution of Cooks Beach obsidian was constricted while the site was used for sweet potato cultivation, a pattern often attributed to increased warfare. It appears cultivation was abandoned after AD 1650 marking a second secession of use, a fact confirmed in AD 1769 when Captain Cook visited the area. We consider the possible drivers for the late abandonment of cultivation at Cooks Beach.     

Joint Effects of Personal Factors and Ecological Variables on the Interprovincial Migration Pattern of Young Adults in Canada: A Nested Logit Analysis

This paper applies a nested logit model to the 1981 census micro data to study the joint effects of personal factors (sex, mother tongue, nativity, education, and marital status) and ecological variables on the 1976–1981 interprovincial migration pattern of young adults in Canada. In multivariate contexts, personal factors not only are of paramount importance in explaining the departure process but also have significant interactions with ecological variables in determining the destination choice pattern.     

关于聚落考古的方法问题

所谓聚落考古,就是以聚落为对象,研究其具体形态及其所反映的社会形态,进而研究聚落形态的演变所反映的社会形态的发展轨迹。聚落考古往往要与环境考古相结合,才能取得较好的效果。我们讲的聚落形态不是遗址形态。在聚落形态没有根本改变的情况下,它所反映的社会面貌或社会组织结构也应当没有本质的改变。有些聚落中的遗迹保存得比较好,不但可以进行功能区的划分,还可以进一步了解各功能区乃至单体建筑之间的联系,借以复原当时的社会。要做到这一点,仅仅依据地层关系和文化分期难以达到目的,还需要引入地面的概念,要设法揭示完整的地面。聚落调查的目的不仅是要了解有没有遗址,也不仅仅是了解遗址中有哪几个时期的东西。从聚落考古的要求来说,至少要了解遗址中是单一文化期的聚落,还是有几个时期不同范围的聚落。     

Geographical propinquity among pre-famine Catholic Irish settlers in Upper Canada

Recent studies of frontier settlement in North America have suggested the existence of a greater complexity of society and locality than once visualized. The settlement of propinquitous groups of people with similar origins was a common feature of nineteenth-century America. The territorial identity of these groups may have both reflected and reinforced their cultural distinctiveness. This study examines the geographical propinquity of the Catholic Irish in the Robinson emigration of 1825 to Upper Canada (early Ontario). The object is to demonstrate the varying pattern of propinquity spatially and to associate the pattern with characteristics of social propinquity. The existence of social institutions, particularly the nuclear family and the parish, or antecedent community, within the Irish group appears to have been an important influence on the local geographical pattern of initial settlement.     

Preparing an archaeological field survey: Remote sensing interpretation for herding structures in the Southern Levant

Development of archaeological “virtual surveys” using online satellite imagery allows the identification of an increasing number and diversity of data. Coherent procedures are now essential in the preparation of any field study: estimating archaeological potential, gathering and mapping environmental features, and building hypotheses about settlement location and settlement patterns. In this article, we propose methods aimed at developing tools to describe and measure the different elements of pastoral archaeological structures in southern Syria, and quantifying the importance of these structures in the landscape and natural environment. Our thematic case study is the pastoral settlement pattern in the Leja, a basaltic region in southern Syria.     

Delayed Underurbanization and the Closed-City Effect: The Case of Ust'-Kamenogorsk

A field study conducted by the author based on a 2001 survey (N = 3,136) compares data on population change at the individual settlement level from the 1999 census of Kazakhstan with unpublished data from the 1989 census. The author documents the unique phenomenon of "delayed underurbanization" in the formerly closed East Kazakh city of Ust'- Kamenogorsk (ca. 300,000 inhabitants in 2002), arguing that the limited financial resources of rural migrants to that city (recently accessible to residents of its rural hinterland) have created spatial patterns of residence and commuting similar to those under the Soviet underurbanization model for open cities. The study, covering an area dominated by militaryindustrial and/or mining-metallurgical economies, is relevant to research focused on other formerly closed cities throughout the Soviet Union. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: J61, O15, O18. 5 figures, 25 references.     

Une histoire de résidus : à propos des facteurs généraux et locaux de croissance régionale au Canada,de 1971 à 2001

Starting from an econometric model of local employment growth, applied to Canada (1971–2001), residuals—relative to model predictions—are analyzed over time and over space, in turn allowing us to draw a distinction between general explanatory variables and factors of a more local, cyclical or accidental nature. The model's explanatory power grows over time, founded on variables such as urban size, market access and industrial structure, allowing us to conclude that local employment growth in Canada follows an increasingly geographically predictable pattern. However, an examination of the residuals reveals more localized processes. Growth volatility is most manifest in Alberta and British Columbia, home to the most erratic local economies. Emerging patterns are visible in the last period, most notably the underperformance of Northern Ontario and of non‐metropolitan communities between Windsor and Québec City, lying along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence. The over‐performance—compared to model predictions — of small and mid‐sized towns in south‐eastern Québec can, on the other hand, be interpreted as a sign of truly local social processes, generally associated with a particularly dynamic local entrepreneurial class.     

Patterns of War in the Andes from the Archaic to the Late Horizon: Insights from Settlement Patterns and Cranial Trauma

Over the pre-Columbian sequence, Andean warfare ranged greatly in intensity. This review combines published information on cranial trauma and settlement patterns, which often align and clarify each other, to make an initial assessment of how severely Andean populations were affected by war over time and space. The data speak to a number of major topics in the archaeology of warfare, such as the origin of war, contrasts in state militarism, and changes in the practice of war related to social organization. Although there is considerable regional variation, two large-scale “waves” of escalated conflict that are clearly supported by the cranial trauma and settlement pattern data occurred in the Final Formative (late Early Horizon, 400 BC–AD 100) and the Late Intermediate period (AD 1000–1400).     

Subsistence change,landscape use,and changing site elevation at the Pleistocene–Holocene transition in the Dordogne of southwestern France

The dramatic topography of the Dordogne Valley region of southwestern France has long been recognized as an influence on prehistoric human settlement and subsistence patterns. Previous research on late Pleistocene settlement patterns in this region implies that, as cold-adapted higher-ranked resources became scarce in the lowlands, site location in the Dordogne and adjacent river valleys should shift towards higher-elevation areas during the period from 18,000 to 6500 years BP. This study employs a GIS-based analysis to evaluate the changing settlement patterns in the Dordogne region at this time. While no significant changes in elevation were found during this period, site elevation variance does appear to increase significantly between the Magdalenian and the Sauveterrian. Explanations for this finding are explored using zooarchaeological data from Moulin du Roc, one of the sites in the data set. Results suggest that the Magdalenian period in the Dordogne may not have been as resource-rich as is often assumed.     

山东地区商文化聚落形态演变初探

本文考察了山东地区商文化的聚落形态演变过程及其历史背景。商文化聚落形态在山东地区经历了四个阶段的变化:早商时期仅济南大辛庄一处遗址;中商时期遗址数量增加并在泰沂山脉两侧形成了规模较大的聚落群;晚商早期遗址数量保持稳定但等级较高的遗址处于衰落状态;晚商晚期不但遗址总数而且等级较高的遗址数量都明显增加,还出现了像苏埠屯这样的高规格墓地。这一聚落形态的演变反映了商文化在山东地区东扩的连续性与阶段性。     

Artists in rural locales: market access, landscape appeal and economic exigency

The period 1971 to 1991 saw a significant increase in the proportion of Canadians employed in the 'arts'. While still concentrated to a large extent in urban Canada, artists do seek out rural locations to pursue their craft. This paper identifies, interprets and classifies communities in rural Canada that specialize in the production of visual, performing and literary art. Location quotients are calculated from a custom-tabulated run of 1991 census data on employment in the arts in all Canadian census subdivisions. We propose several factors that may account for high concentrations of artists in some rural places. Cluster analysis is used to develop a classification of Canadian rural arts communities. We identify 371 small arts centres in Canada, ranging from Cape Dorset in the Northwest Territories to Elora in southwestern Ontario. Market access, landscape appeal and economic exigency are among the location determinants isolated. Further analysis reveals that five types of arts communities exist in rural Canada. Future research on a localized scale is now necessary to uncover specific factors responsible for the prevalence of artists in the rural ecumene.     

The equally “bad” French and English farmers of Quebec: New TFP measures from the 1831 census

New TFP estimates drawn from the neglected census of 1831 for Lower Canada are used to test the controversial (but still dominant) traditional “poor French farmers” explanation for a prolonged economic crisis. The new evidence shows that French-speaking areas were equally as productive as English-speaking areas, something that upturns the established consensus and reinforces the minority viewpoint that culture had little to do with the crisis. Using a broad range of controls, the researchers find that this conclusion is robust and that other variables such as settlement recency, environment, and economic structure were much more significant determinants of TFP. These results warrant the abandonment of the cultural explanation and a shift toward other explanatory channels.     

Multiscalar Settlement Ecology Study of Piedmont Village Tradition Communities,A.D. 1000–1600

This research analyzes the spatial patterning of settlement sites in relation to landscape features to determine the factors that influenced settlement location choices for Late Precontact (A.D. 1000–1600) Piedmont Village Tradition (PVT) communities in the Yadkin, Dan, Haw, and Eno river valleys of the Piedmont Southeast. We employ geographic information systems to estimate characteristics of past landscapes, nearest neighbor analysis to describe basic settlement patterns, and discriminant function analysis to determine spatial correlations between settlements and landscape features. We examine the data on three scales and also assess potential changes over time. Results indicate that settlement location choices were broadly similar on the regional scale, but specific influences varied between and within valleys and over time. When examined with current archaeological, ethnohistoric, and linguistic information, the results suggest that PVT communities engaged in regional interaction networks in highly variable ways and that the relationship between subsistence and settlement varied according to settlement size. Using these results, we explore the roles PVT communities played in the formation and maintenance of natural and cultural landscapes in the Late Precontact Southeast.     

Directional layouts in central lowland Maya settlement

This paper suggests the existence of non-random, directional patterns in the location of housemounds across the Late Classic Maya settlement landscape at Baking Pot, Belize, and then explores the wider implications of this patterning in the central Maya lowlands. It introduces an anisotropic method – based on nearest neighbour bearings and successive grid offsets – in order to explore possible rectilinear organisation in settlement layouts despite the presence of uneven and irregular patterns of archaeological dating and recovery. The results suggest a grid-like distribution of houseplots and, by implication, also a set of routes running throughout the housemound landscape and local Maya neighbourhoods during the site's Late and Terminal Classic history. Furthermore, different possible alignments in different parts of the site are tentatively regarded as an indication of shifting orientations to localised grids, following the shift in alignment of monumental architecture, as the settlement landscape expanded over time. Finally, we discuss the implications of these findings with respect to the broader interpretation of Maya settlement patterns.     

Constructing Abstract Worlds of the Past

A principal research need in historical geography is the creation of abstract worlds of the past. This study of agricultural settlement patterns in Upper Canada, 1782–1851, assesses the relative rank and sensitivity of land availability, point of entry, land quality, and distance to market in relation to a settler's decision to locate. Settlement patterns for years between 1782 and 1851 are simulated and compared to real world data by means of visual analysis of settlement maps and correlation analysis. For patterns before 1851 the dates of survey are important; by 1851 the effects of this factor are not evident.