论人文地理学的几个重要问题(下)

人文地理学研究对象是经过人类长期的社会活动改观了人文环境,这个环境是添加在自然环境基础之上的,并与它有密切依存关系的"人文体"。因此这个人文体内的各种人文现象与事物的分布与运动变化。不可能不受自然与社会环境的双重影响与制约。研究这些人文现象与事物和它所依存的地域系统(即自然与人文地理系统)之间的各种关系的理论与学说,就是"人地关系论"。这种"人地关系论",正是整个人文地理学的基础理论。     

论自然环境对河洛地区史前文化发展的影响

自然环境是人类赖以生存的物质基础.人类社会的发展在一定程度上受自然地理环境的制约,同时气候条件也会对社会的发展产生较大影响.自然环境对人类文化形成与发展的制约作用,时代愈早表现得愈明显.河洛地区史前文化的形成与发展以及不同考古学文化生产和生活方式的异同,与自然环境有着密切的关系.人类只有适应自然、按自然规律办事,才能够去改造自然,并在一定程度上战胜自然,从而使人类文化持续地向前发展.     

孢粉与植硅体的史前自然环境指示意义——以两处史前遗址为例

随着考古学理论的不断发展以及考古发现的日益丰富,古代人类生存的自然环境变迁受到越来越多的关注,因此最能直接揭示环境变化的植物遗存就显得尤为重要。本文以两处典型的史前遗址为例,探讨孢粉与植硅体这两种微小植物遗存对于史前自然环境的指示意义。     

地震考古——用考古学方法介入地震科学研究

考古学是研究过去人类社会遗留下来的遗存物,并通过这些物化的人类活动证据,观察、研究和复原古代人类化的发展与社会的发展。考古学从来就十分注重相关的自然遗存与人类化遗存的关系。考古可以发现各种各样不同类型的古代遗存现象,这些现象既可能是化的也可能是自然的。这些现象还有可能涉及人与自然的各个方面。通过考古发现的自然现象,也一定能够与人类化现象相关联。人与自然的关系,在考古学研究中可以得到比较充分的展示,这也是考古发现和考古学研究的一个尤为突出的特点。     

白洋淀地区史前环境考古初步研究

作为典型的冲积低平原与浅湖沼地貌形态的白洋淀地区,是研究全新世环境变迁及古环境与古文化相互关系的重要地域。全新世气候的变化,不仅影响着白洋淀地区的自然环境,同时也影响着史前人类的生存模式。多年来该区域考古发现的资料证实,全新世气候暖湿与冷干的交替变化,直接影响到遗址分布的数量和所处的地貌位置,亦即影响到人类对居住点的选择,与此同时也影响着史前文化的经济生活类型。     

辽东半岛古代生存经济模式的转变及其环境背景

本文首先根据对辽东半岛考古遗址中出土的生产工具的统计分析,结合遗址出土的动物骨骼和贝类遗骸的种类及数量,讨论了辽东半岛从小珠山下层时期到青铜时代生存经济的模式及其变化。然后从自然环境变迁、人类对自然环境的影响以及对外文化交流等方面,对上述变化的原因进行了探讨,认为辽东半岛北部区、南部区和海岛区的生存经济模式及其变化,与各区不同的自然环境以及人类对自然资源的影响有关。     

长江上游文明化进程学术研讨会综述

长江上游地区是中国古代文明起源的多中心之一,尤其是近二十余年来考古新发现不断涌现,各种学术观点层出不穷,长江上游地区考古学研究的重心不仅在文化谱系研究方面更为深化,而且在全面探讨古代文化与社会的发展变化过程等方面方兴未艾。对本地区自然环境的变迁、社会生产和社会经济的发展变化、社会组织和社会结构的演进、     

长江三峡大宁河流域的环境考古学研究

本文利用出土的考古材料及目前所见的大宁河流域环境考古研究成果,在具体分析大宁河流域人类活动与自然环境之间相互关系的基础上得出结论：大宁河流域独特的自然地理环境及其变迁使得当地各个时期的人类主要是在沿河两岸优越的自然条件中生存和发展,人类在利用环境的过程中创造并发展了各个阶段灿烂的文化,同时也在不断地影响和改造着周围的环境,周围环境的改变不可避免地又反过来影响着人类活动及其创造的文化。     

论自然环境对人类社会发展作用方式

自然环境对人类社会发展的控制是一种可能性控制,这种控制的具体方式有四:一是经由自然稀缺性控制人类社会的持续发展;二是经由空间差异性控制人类社会的空间分化和区域发展;三是经由其时间上的变化控制人类社会发展的波动与周期;四是经由其使用价值的多样性控制资源与环境利用的社会选择范围与方向。作者对前两种方式做了重点论述。     

卡若人从黄河走来

许多年来,学们认为：西藏高原,高寒缺氧,自然环境恶劣,人类居住的历史至多不会超过2500年。然而20世纪70年代末,西藏高原东部的一次考古发现,把这一历史向前推进到距今5000年。本将要讲述的,即是西藏东部昌都卡若的一次重大考古发现。     

Modern humans in Sarawak,Malaysian Borneo,during Oxygen Isotope Stage 3: palaeoenvironmental evidence from the Great Cave of Niah

During recent reinvestigations in the Great Cave of Niah in Borneo, the ‘Hell Trench’ sedimentary sequence seen by earlier excavators was re-exposed. Early excavations here yielded the earliest anatomically-modern human remains in island Southeast Asia. Calibrated radiocarbon dates, pollen, algal microfossils, palynofacies, granulometry and geochemistry of the ‘Hell Trench’ sequence provide information about environmental and vegetational changes, elements of geomorphic history and information about human activity. The ‘Hell’ sediments were laid down episodically in an ephemeral stream or pool. The pollen suggests cyclically changing vegetation with forest habitats alternating with more open environments; indicating that phases with both temperatures and precipitation reduced compared with the present. These events can be correlated with global climate change sequences to produce a provisional dating framework. During some forest phases, high counts of Justicia, a plant which today colonises recently burnt forest areas, point to fire in the landscape. This may be evidence for biomass burning by humans, presumably to maintain forest-edge habitats. There is evidence from palynofacies for fire on the cave floor in the ‘Hell’ area. Since the area sampled is beyond the limit of plant growth, this is evidence for human activity. The first such evidence is during an episode with significant grassland indicators, suggesting that people may have reached the site during a climatic phase characterised by relatively open habitats ∼50 ka. Thereafter, people were able to maintain a relatively consistent presence at Niah. The human use of the ‘Hell’ area seems to have intensified through time, probably because changes in the local hydrological regime made the area dryer and more suitable for human use.     

Transport Infrastructure in the Mountains: Why and How to Protect Landscape with Human Activity as Part of its Heritage

In mountain areas without permanent settlements, human activity is entirely dependent on spatial interaction. For centuries, local and regional traffic has followed livestock trails and footpaths. Mainly during the 20th century, new public and private roads changed this situation significantly in large parts of Norway. While mountain summer farming decreased, hydropower development and leisure use became dominant. Protected areas have been established to preserve possibilities for outdoor recreation and ‘wilderness’. However, seasonal farming activity is still an important upholder of cultural heritage. In the investigated area in western Norway, parallels between accessibility and human activity on mountain summer farmsteads have been identified with the abandonment of dairy production between ca 1905 and 1973, recent use by landowners and hikers’ use of publicly accessible tourist cabins. Increased differences in accessibility and protection status have resulted in diversification of human activity in different locations. Custom and tradition represent different principles according to which cultural landscape can be maintained—with emphasis on dynamics or invariance, respectively. Recent landscape protection focuses primarily on tradition. The necessity of easy access to maintain the living cultural heritage in addition to ‘wilderness’ areas, however, requires taking both concepts into account, most probably treated as geographically separate.     

青海湖流域的人文生态——吐谷浑人对青海湖流域的经营

本文主要从人文生态学视角着重分析和总结吐谷浑人经营青海湖流域的历史经验,认为青海湖流域的人文生态环境先后经过羌、汉、鲜卑、吐蕃、蒙古人相继经营的五个历史时期,其中3～7世纪鲜卑吐谷浑人经营时期,青海湖流域的人文生态环境发育成熟,形成形态完备、结构合理的人文生态系统,人与自然达到最佳和谐状态。全文分四个部分,分别从民族生态、政治生态、经济生态以及湖名的人文意蕴,阐述吐谷浑人从蒙古草原入主青海湖流域,在羌汉民族长期经营的基础上,以其先进的政治制度和生产方式,创造性地经营青海湖流域,不仅建立维系数百年的草原汗国,还成功经营高原畜牧业,尤其巧妙利用青海湖地理培育出举世闻名的优质马种——龙种马及青海骢。     

Holocene climatic change and past Irish societal response

The extent to which North Atlantic Holocene climatic perturbations influenced past human societies is an area of considerable uncertainty and fierce debate. Ireland is ideally placed to help resolve this issue, being occupied for over 9000 yr and located on the eastern Atlantic seaboard, a region dominated by westerly airflow. Irish bog and lake tree populations provide unambiguous evidence of major shifts in surface moisture through the Holocene similar to cycles recorded in the marine realm of the North Atlantic, indicating significant changes in the latitude and intensity of zonal atmospheric circulation across the region. To test for human response to these cycles we summed the probabilities of 465 radiocarbon ages obtained from Irish archaeological contexts and observe enhanced archaeological visibility during periods of sustained wet conditions. These results suggest either increasing density of human populations in key, often defensive locations, and/or the development of subsistence strategies to overcome changing conditions, the latter recently proposed as a significant factor in avoiding societal collapse. Regardless, we demonstrate environmental change is a significantly more important factor in influencing human activity in the landscape than has hitherto been acknowledged.     

Boundary theory as a means to understanding social space in archaeological sites

Social space in archaeological sites is constructed and produced by differentiation in behavior (habitus) and is characterized by domains or activity areas separated by boundaries. Activity areas vary in their flexibility and permeability to intrusion of other activities. This is reflected in the nature of the boundaries between activity areas. A study of boundaries, archaeologically often represented by transitional space, can provide insight into human behavior, the use and construction of space, and the contemporaneity of activities represented in a site occupation. It is suggested that kill site activities such as primary butchering may have relatively inflexible and impermeable boundaries, that activities such as tool resharpening may be more flexible, and that secondary processing may be more permeable to the intrusion of other activities. A study of a selection of activity areas at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump confirms that these concepts do enhance our understanding of site activity areas and that an examination of boundaries can allow an assessment of activity area contemporaneity.     

18世纪中期以来新疆奇台人工绿洲开发下的人地关系研究

本文通过历史文献和野外调查方法分析了18世纪中期以来奇台人工绿洲的开发活动及其与环境之间的关系。奇台县人工绿洲开发活动始终以农业为主,所以,本文研究人工绿洲发展以耕地变化为主。18世纪耕地呈点状形态沿北部泉水和南部河流分布;19—20世纪40年代末形成两片灌区,即南部河水灌区和北部泉水灌区;以后耕地扩张,在平原区广泛分布,南部仍是河水灌区,中部和北部则发展成纯井灌区。人工绿洲开发过程中的人地关系发展经历了三个阶段:第一阶段,18—20世纪40年代末,人工绿洲发展与环境相对协调时期,"以水定地",人工绿洲发展与环境之间相对协调;第二阶段,20世纪50—70年代,绿洲人地关系发展失衡时期,表现为耕地迅速扩张,灌溉水源不足,水土利用矛盾突出,经营粗放;第三阶段,20世纪80年代以来,人地之间脆弱平衡形成时期,绿洲内外环境的脆弱性都增强。研究认为可持续的水土资源管理、水资源利用技术和富有弹性的生态系统重构技术是奇台绿洲人地关系协调发展的基本途径。     

关于极端干旱地区人地关系历史演变的初步研究——以塔里木盆地为例

纵观极端干旱地区生态环境与人类活动关系的全过程,可以看出:在气候环境自然演化的背景下,人地关系存在着时间与空间上的两种变迁。从历史时期看,从原始社会、农业社会到工业社会,人地关系大致经历了依附自然、干预顺应自然、干预自然、回归自然四个阶段。从空间上看,表现出人类"逐水而徙","依水而居"的相互关系。各个阶段以气候环境变化为背景,以水资源为主线,表现出人地关系演变的时空特征。塔里木水系的瓦解和塔里木盆地的沙漠化以及胡杨林植被面积的缩小,说明近100年来人类活动对人地关系的演化逐步起主导作用     

Vegetation history at the multi-period prehistoric complex at Ballynahatty,Co. Down,Northern Ireland

Palaeoecological methods can provide an environmental context for archaeological sites, enabling the nature of past human activity to be explored from an indirect but alternative perspective. Through a palynological study of a small fen peatland located within the catchment of a multi-period prehistoric complex at Ballynahatty, Co. Down, Northern Ireland, we reconstruct the vegetation history of the area during the early prehistoric period. The pollen record reveals tentative evidence for Mesolithic activity in the area at 6410–6220 cal BC, with woodland disturbance identified during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transitional period ca. 4430–3890 cal BC. A more significant impact on the landscape is observed in the Early Neolithic from 3950 to 3700 cal BC, with an opening up of the forest and the establishment of a mixed agricultural economy. This activity precedes and continues to be evident through the Mid-Neolithic during which megalithic tombs and related burial sites were constructed at Ballynahatty. Due to chronological uncertainties and a possible hiatus in peat accumulation in the fen, the contemporary environment of the Ballynahatty timber circle complex (constructed and used ca. 3080–2490 cal BC) and henge (dating to the third millennium cal BC) cannot certainly be established. Nevertheless, the pollen record suggests that the landscape remained open through to the Bronze Age, implying a long continuity of human activity in the area. These findings support the idea that the Ballynahatty prehistoric complex was the product of a gradual and repeated restructuring of the ritual and ceremonial landscape whose significance continued to be recognised throughout the early prehistoric period.     

Identifying domestic functional areas. Chemical analysis of floor sediments at the Classical-Hellenistic settlement at Düzen Tepe (SW Turkey)

For over a decade, multi-element chemical analysis of floor sediments in archaeological contexts has been a tool to identify and interpret anthropogenic chemical residues and activities. For the current study, a multi-element chemical analysis was applied to floor samples from a Classical-Hellenistic courtyard building at Düzen Tepe (SW Turkey). Among a series of 19 elements analyzed, K, Mg, Fe, P and Sr are thought to directly reflect anthropogenic chemical residues. The elements Cr, Mg, Ni, Pb and Ti are considered to reflect the geological background of the site, yet their contents seem to vary over different chemical residue zones, making them a suitable tool for delineating activity areas. Overall, the sampling and analysis techniques applied at Düzen Tepe – mild acid sample extraction and ICP-OES analysis – have proven to be fit for this kind of study. The analyses allow human activity zones within the study area to be identified and interpreted and deliver insights into the archaeological contexts that could not be obtained by archaeological research alone.