Rethinking the Dawn of History: The Schedule,Signature, and Agency of European Goods in Protohistoric Illinois

Abstract

Interpretations of the archaeological record of the seventeenth century Illinois Country have been temporally compressed, and the richly stratified archival, ethnographic, and material records from that era have not been applied to the archaeological information at hand. A muddied view of the remarkable changes that occurred within the cultural landscape of Illinois is the result. European goods first appear in the region between 1580 and 1630 and the pottery of the Illinois Indians—the Danner series—is present in each early Illinois sample that includes these imports. A reexamination of the Zimmerman, Palos, and Oak Forest sites suggests that temporal changes in trade good assemblages can be better understood in the context of historically documented trade schedules. Further, it is argued that the Illinois Indians actively positioned themselves in the political and economic landscape of the fur trade many decades prior to the arrival of the French in the Illinois Country, serving as the principal agents of the great changes that are associated with protohistory in Illinois.     

Refining correspondence analysis-based ceramic seriation of regional data sets

Ceramic seriation is one of the primary tools used by archaeologists to create chronologies, especially for surface survey data. In this article, we outline a bootstrapped approach to correspondence analysis-based seriation designed to help assess and improve the stability of relative orderings produced through such analyses. This procedure systematically identifies and removes small samples and sites with unusual samples, such as those with multiple components, which are not handled well by seriation and require secondary interpretation. Our approach combines data from multiple projects in the Zuni region of the American Southwest in order to gauge the effects of intraregional variation in ceramic distributions and reexamine prior interpretations of demographic change based on individual projects. This analysis highlights two previously unknown regional trends, including variation in the distribution of multicomponent sites and potential short-term depopulation of a significant part of the region. Based on this example, we further suggest that our method may be particularly useful in situations where little prior chronological information is available.     

CERAMIC SHELL CUP EFFIGIES FROM ILLINOIS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

Abstract

Ceramic effigies of marine shell cups have long been known from Mississippian sites in Illinois and elsewhere in the Southeast, and have been included in studies of other ceramic effigies, such as animal figures and head pots (Holmes 1886). This paper focuses on 31 known Illinois specimens. I will show that, in Illinois, the geographic range of these effigies is primarily restricted to the American Bottom around Cahokia, and their occurrence is largely limited to Late Mississippian Moorehead and Sand Prairie phases (A.D. 1200 to 1400). I also explore possible meanings of shell cups and, by extension, ceramic effigies of shell cups. Ethnohistoric as well as archaeological evidence show that lightning whelk cups and, by analogy, shell cup effigies functioned in contexts of uncertainty and conflict, consistent with their context in Illinois.     

Mixed results of seven methods for organic residue analysis applied to one vessel with the residue of a known foodstuff

Several methods of archaeological organic residue analysis were applied to a single unglazed and unseasoned ceramic vessel that had absorbed residues of heated camel milk. Sections of the wall of this vessel were sent to eleven archaeological laboratories. Seven reported their results before the identity of the residue was revealed, during the 70th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology. Methods included stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratio analysis, protein analysis and lipid analysis. These laboratory techniques provide a biochemical analysis of the residue in a ceramic matrix, the archaeological interpretation of which can be rather difficult. The exact source of the residue was not identified by any laboratory, but it is evident that residue analysis can provide valuable information, especially when combined with additional archaeological and historical data. We therefore support a close cooperation of those working in this field to develop it to its full potential.     

Attribute-Based Seriation of Postclassic and Early Colonial Sherd Collections from the Basin of Mexico

Abstract

Seriation of ceramic collections based on diachronic changes in formal and surface treatment attributes offers advantages over type-based approaches when dealing with small collections. Individual attributes may be recordable where types (constellations of attributes) are not, increasing the quantity of chronological information that can be inferred. In addition, different classes of attributes (e.g., decorative, formal, surface treatment) highlight distinct processes and changes related to pottery production, consumption, and use, and provide a basis for finer-resolution seriation results. This paper outlines a procedure for attribute-based seriation analysis by detecting time-sensitive attributes and assigning sherd collections to temporal phases using clustering and ordination techniques, crosschecked with discriminant analysis. The results indicate a five-phase sequence for Middle-Late Postclassic and Early Colonial period collections from the Basin of Mexico (ca. A.D. 1200–1625).     

The Approximate Bayesian Computation approach to reconstructing population dynamics and size from settlement data: demography of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition at Lepenski Vir

Demographic aspects of prehistoric populations have an important role in current archaeological theory and empirical research. In this study, we develop a method to estimate population dynamics and population size and apply it to data on house remains at one of key European Mesolithic-Neolithic transitional sites - Lepenski Vir (Serbia). Lepenski Vir is a site located in the Danube Gorges, well-known for its trapezoidal house floors and stone sculpture. It was most intensively occupied between ~6200 and ~6000 cal BC, the so called Transitional phase, which corresponds to the beginning of the Neolithic in Central Balkans. We combine archaeological evidence and ethnographic information with mathematical models of population dynamics and house accumulation within a Bayesian framework (Approximate Bayesian Computation) to derive posterior distributions of growth rate and population size estimates for the Lepenski Vir population in this period.     

3D model of the Can Sadurní cave

Graphic and metric information about the site and its environment and about the different structures and artefacts located are indispensable for the optimal management of an archaeological excavation. A Geographic Information System (GIS) proves useful in managing and analysing information and data obtained from different sources. Two techniques of data capture, Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and close range photogrammetry, are used to generate accurate and high-resolution 3D models of a cave, the silos and a combustion structure at the Can Sadurní site (Begues, NE Spain). This site is especially noteworthy on account of its complete stratigraphy of the Catalonian Holocene. The capture and processing of the photogrammetric and TLS data used to generate 3D models are discussed in detail. These models cannot be obtained by classic archaeological techniques since the record is made layer by layer, approximately one decimetre apart, with the result that the information between the layers is lost. Our findings highlight the potential of these techniques for obtaining accurate and photorealistic models that facilitate a complete analysis of the available information at an archaeological site.     

THE BAYESIAN APPROACH TO THE INTERPRETATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA

Archaeologists are increasingly becoming aware of an approach to data investigation known as Bayesian statistics. In this paper we outline both the philosophical and statistical background to the approach. We show that it provides a logical and coherent framework in which to make inferences on the basis of both data and a priori expert knowledge. We note that adoption of the Bayesian framework is particularly timely since there have been recent dramatic developments in numerical methods which mean that a number of previous implementation problems have now been solved. As a result, many questions of archaeological interest, which require the use of complex statistical models, are being investigated using this methodology. We use a variety of recently published examples from a range of archaeological areas to illustrate the type of questions that can be answered and the nature of the methodologies used, and we make comparisons with the results obtained using more traditional statistical techniques.     

Theory and practice in urban pottery seriation

The paper discusses the principles and a procedure for analysing urban archaeological sequences using pottery seriation. Interpretations of particular shapes of seriation curve are offered and the problem of residuality is confronted. The method is suggested as having direct relevance for the definition of stratigraphic events and historical activities on urban sites.     

POTS AND POTTERS IN ATHENS AND CORINTH: A REVIEW

Summary. In this article, we draw upon a wide range of archaeological, technical and iconographical evidence in order to examine the organisation and social role of fine pottery production in two contrasting Archaic and Classical poleis, Athens and Corinth. We examine developments in the relationship between the organisation of production, changes in decorative style and the degree of complexity of the social and political organisation of the two producer societies during a period of state formation. We also consider variation in the behavioural patterns surrounding ceramic use, and the role of production within the overall economy (and especially its relationship to subsistence activity). Such a study of comparative ceramic ecology not only offers a distinctive source of information about the internal ordering of producer societies, but also addresses the issue of the generation of variability in the ceramic record, an issue which has hitherto received little attention from Classical archaeologists, but which is central to a full understanding of ceramic trade and exchange.     

A coarse Bayesian approach to evaluate luminescence ages

This paper develops a simplified Bayesian approach to evaluate a luminescence age. We limit our purpose to the cause-effect relationship between the age and the accumulated dose. The accumulated dose is given as a function of the age and several others parameters: internal radionuclides contents, gamma dose rate, cosmic dose rate, alpha efficiency, wetness, conversion factors, wetness coefficients, fading rate and storage time. The age is the quantity we are looking for. Bayes’ theorem expresses the changes on the probability distribution of age due to the luminescence study. The information before study (prior) comprises what is previously known about the age and the archaeological model (cultural period, stratigraphic relations, type, etc.) as well as the parameters of the physical model. The accumulated dose consists in the data describing the measurement. The various stages of Bayesian approach were implemented using the software WinBugs. Simulated data sets were used in various models. We present various small models representing typical examples encountered in luminescence dating.     

The Unitary Association Method of Relative Dating and Its Application to Archaeological Data

The primary objective of relative dating techniques is to determine a reliable sequence of archaeological deposits. This task becomes more difficult whenever our research steps beyond individual sites to the study of intercommunity relationships because we need to develop some means of associating unconnected deposits in time. Radiocarbon dating, as a stand-alone method, cannot always be used to draw reliable correlations between sites. The relevance of archaeological dates, including absolute dates, relies ultimately on the determination of artifact or sample associations and their respective superpositional relationships. The Unitary Association Method of Relative Dating is an alternative to seriation methods that is less susceptible to spatial variation and offers analytical strengths needed for regional chronological analyses.     

The Emergence of Kwahe’e Black-on-white pottery in the Tewa Basin,New Mexico

Despite the importance of ceramic typologies for defining archaeological cultures and making chronological inferences, the ceramic types comprising these typologies are not always well dated. Here, we present an analysis of radiocarbon dates generated from Accelerator Mass Spectrometry of corn remains found in association with Kwahe’e Black-on-white (Kwahe’e B/w) ceramics from the Tewa Basin of the Northern Rio Grande region of New Mexico in the American Southwest. This autochthonous ceramic type is the first in a cohesive lineage of decorated white wares known as the Rio Grande ceramic series. A Bayesian analysis of these dates yielded a 95% probability range of a.d. 975–1023 for the beginning temporal boundary marking the emergence of Kwahe’e B/w. This estimate for the chronological emergence of Kwahe’e B/w is at least 27 years earlier than previously demonstrated and appears to coincide with the initial population increase in the Tewa Basin during the Late Developmental period (a.d. 900–1200), and with the emergence of the Tewa language that is still spoken in the region.     

A comparison of two norms in archaeological seriation

Two norms frequently used in archaeological seriation are compared. Although these norms are equivalent in some particular cases, this is not true in general both from a computational point of view and in the archaeological sense.     

Morphometric Analysis of Camelid Remains from the Alero Deodoro Roca (ADR) Site (Córdoba,Argentina). An Attempt to Characterise Body‐Size Variability in Sierras Pampeanas Australes Region

This paper focuses in the morphometric analyses of Lama guanicoe remains recovered from the hunter–gatherer archaeological site Alero Deodoro Roca, located at Sierras Pampeanas Australes region (Córdoba Argentina), an area that has little information on the body‐size variability of these artiodactyls. Because of the sparse osteometric data in the region, we focused on determining inter‐intraspecific differentiation of wild camelids through corroborated osteometric techniques and multivariate statistical analyses of proximal phalanges. Our results showed a clear interspecific differentiation between modern vicuñas and archaeological specimens. We could also distinguish at least three guanaco size groups (small, medium and large) with the archaeological remains from the late Holocene (3000–3600 bp ) of the site, presenting medium‐size characteristics. Finally this paper aims at establishing a first approach in the characterisation of guanaco body size in the mountainous region of Córdoba. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Regional perspectives on Wari state influence in Cusco,Peru (c. AD 600–1000)

The archaeological reconstruction of ancient states requires consistent regional measures of state-directed power and influence. This paper presents data from a series of systematic archaeological surveys in the Cusco region of highland Peru to evaluate patterns of influence by the Wari state during a period of colonization from ca. AD 600–1000. We discuss interpretive debates over the nature and intensity of Wari social power, suggesting that site-based studies can be contextualized meaningfully using our large-scale dataset, which offers settlement patterns at varying distances (0–70 km) from Pikillacta, a Wari administrative center. We discuss local settlement patterns before and during Wari colonization, as well as the distribution of Wari pottery and local Wari-influenced wares. We then use a geographic information systems analysis of travel time from key sites to evaluate the broad regional distribution patterns of local and Wari ceramic styles. Although the regional survey data do not inform us reliably about all kinds of social power, we conclude that the Wari cultural, economic, and political influence over the Cusco region was limited and discontinuous—an example of colonization that resembles the practices of other early states.     

A comprehensive numerical chronology for the pre-Columbian cultures of the Palpa valleys,south coast of Peru

Before the arrival of the Spaniards in Peru in 1532, many different societies flourished in the coastal desert of southern Peru. Of these, one of the best known is the Nasca culture (living in the area between about 260 cal BC and 640 cal BC.), which created the famous geoglyphs on the desert floor. In this paper we present a numerical chronology for the cultural development in the valleys of Palpa, in the northern part of the Nazca region, which spans the time from the Archaic Period (starting there around 3760 cal BC) to the Late Intermediate Period (terminating with the arrival of the Spaniards in 1532 AD). The chronology is based on more than 150 ¹⁴C samples collected by our project from well-documented archaeological excavations of 17 different sites in and around Palpa. Thanks to the advanced AMS-¹⁴C dating technique, demanding only few milligrams of organic material, we could focus on samples of plants, like beans, corn, or reed, representing single years of growth or use, and also on delicate materials like straw from clay bricks (adobe) and textiles. All single ¹⁴C dates were combined to cultural phases using a Bayesian statistical model, implementing the a priori information of the archaeological contexts, and adopting the relative ceramic chronologies available for this area.     

Multiple assessments of local properties,production, and performance in metal objects: an experimental case study from Petra,Jordan

This object-specific case study focuses on cupreous artifacts excavated from the Great Temple complex of Petra, Jordan to demonstrate how the use of compositional X-ray analyses alongside two experimental applications (ImageJ software and nanoindentation) have the potential to generate different and otherwise unobtainable information about archaeological metals. The study highlights the value of using multiple techniques as a means of resolving the ambiguities that tend to arise from interpretations of single-sited measurements on objects and from single-instrumental analyses during studies of production processes and consequent material performance. Employing different techniques on multiple localities within a sample permits the gathering of precise information about the behavior of and interrelationships between variables that affect the objects’ fabrication and use, particularly composition, structure, and hardness properties. The resulting data are interpreted in association with contextual archaeological information from Petra to consider the use-life and potential significance of these objects.     

A Simple(R) Model to Predict the Source of Dietary Carbon in Individual Consumers

Quantitative individual human diet reconstruction using isotopic data and a Bayesian approach typically requires the inclusion of several model parameters, such as individual isotopic data, isotopic and macronutrient composition of food groups, diet‐to‐tissue isotopic offsets and dietary routing. In an archaeological context, sparse data may hamper a widespread application of such models. However, simpler models may be proposed to address specific archaeological questions. As a consequence of the intake of marine foods, individuals from the first century ad Roman site of Herculaneum showed well‐defined bone collagen radiocarbon age offsets from the expected terrestrial value. Taking as reference these radiocarbon offsets and using as model input stable isotope data (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N), the performance of two Bayesian mixing model instances (routed and concentration‐dependent model versus non‐routed and concentration‐independent) was compared to predict the carbon contribution of marine foods to bone collagen. Predictions generated by both models were in good agreement with observed values. The model with higher complexity showed only a slightly better performance in terms of accuracy and precision. This demonstrates that under similar circumstances, a simple Bayesian approach can be applied to quantify the carbon contribution of marine foods to human bone collagen.