试析东汉末年太学生离心倾向之成因

东汉末年太学生与官僚士大夫结党谤政．对抗皇权及宦官势力,这种离心倾向源于皇权提倡儒学意识形态与维护权力平衡的政策之间的矛盾冲突。皇权提倡的儒学本位的教化政策．导致以太学生为代表的“通经”之士的增加;但同时皇权又扶植宦官势力进入官僚队伍,以抗衡外戚及士大夫势力．皇权的两种努力结果相互冲突．太学生向上流动的通道受阻。由于皇权不能有效地解决太学生的“致仕”出路问题,引发了太学生的离心倾向。     

汉代君主研习儒学传统的形成及其历史效应

汉代君主研习儒学传统的形成及其历史效应王健两汉是儒学独尊的时代,以武帝改制为起点,儒家思想与王朝政治结下不解之缘。两汉君主尊儒崇经,稽古礼文,对儒学的研习逐渐形成儒家政治格局下的一大历史传统。封建皇权在儒学领域的理论行为,提高了最高统治者的政治文化素...     

皇权再论

通过以士大夫政治形成的宋代为基点,透过大量史料,分别从思想史与政治史的视角对中国历史上的皇权进行了历时性的考察。在思想史视野内的考察,主要阐述了王朝政治的参与者士大夫的皇权观与君主的自律意识。"君"或"君主",在先秦的指归为诸侯国君,自秦始皇开始则专指皇帝。然而,大一统的中央集权政治形成后的士大夫,则有意无视了这种不同,在儒学国教化以及理学的社会普遍化的强势背景下,大量发掘先秦政治言说中对君主限制的内容,作为限制君主制政体下绝对君权的理论武器。"君德成就责经筵",通过对皇子和皇帝进行的为君之道的正常制度化教育和潜移默化的影响,从士大夫的皇权观到君主的自律意识,成功地完成了理论位移。让多数君主在为君之道的框架内,难越雷池一步。在政治史视野内的考察,主要考察了在实际政治运作中的君臣关系。在君臣互相依存合作的前提下,历代士大夫为了防止名义上绝对君权的暴走脱轨,苦心积虑,对皇权实施了种种规范,本文归纳形容为"天"、"道"、"法"三个紧箍咒和"不文律"、"公议"、"留名的青史"三堵墙。本文还通过具体的政治实态揭示出,谏官、御史在多数情况下并没有完成天子法官的使命,却基本沦为政治集团的鹰犬。笔者视派系政治是理解中国政治史的一把钥匙。具体的考察显示,中国历史上的皇权经历了一个由人格化向非人格化转化的过程。尽管皇权在各个历史时期、甚至在同一王朝的不同时期消长都有不同,但实质性皇权由于政治制度的日臻完备等因素,发挥作用的余地愈来愈小,而显示权威的象征性因素却愈来愈大。     

陆游与汤思退、宋高宗——兼谈中国古代专制政权与士大夫的关系等

本文论述陆游与宋高宗、汤思退的关系,这是前人研究宋史未曾注意的视角,对“请治故臣罪”一句解释,纠正了以往注释的错误。本文探讨中国古代专制政权与士大夫的关系,认为如陆游那样,一方面,他们忠於儒家的教义中的良知和正义,故对现实恶浊政治有极多的反感和不满;另一方面,又囿於儒家的忠君思想,是标准的皇权主义者,是标准的专制政治拥护者,所以就难免对皇帝有十足的,在今人看来是荒唐可笑的迷信。     

宋朝的治国方略与文臣士大夫地位的提升

在宋代历史上,士大夫集团无疑担当了政治精英的角色。学们已经注意到：宋代士大夫影响力的增强对皇权产生限制,出现“皇帝与士大夫共治天下”的现象。宋代士大夫地位之所以提高,学界以往更多地侧重在大力推行科举制度等具体“重”方面的原因,而于宋朝在政治上对士大夫阶层的选择,特别是其相关治国方略及处理武关系所产生的作用仍然探究不足。     

魏晋南朝士大夫精神生活述论

魏晋南朝士大夫精神生活述论刘静夫一要谈魏晋南朝士大夫的精神生活，首先涉及到的是这一时期思想观念的变化，特别是儒学的衰微和玄学的兴起。儒学是两汉的官学，又是士大夫获取利禄的工具，所以它在当时特别兴盛，但是，自东汉中期起它开始走向衰落。究其原因，主要在于...     

近十年来中国大陆两汉儒学研究的基本走向和最新进展综述

近十年来中国大陆的两汉儒学研究大体呈现出三个基本走向,一是以经学为核心,涉及汉代的思想学术、社会政治、法律生活等方面的研究,论著和论文相对比较多。二是以儒学为核心,所涉及的范围比前一个方面略广,还包括汉代的宗教、经济、教育等方面的研究,专著和论文也有不少。三是对汉代历史多角度的研究中涉及儒学问题的方面,如官制、礼制、社会组织、地方豪族、门阀世族、丧葬、礼俗、画像石等,有一些著述和论文有所论及,但是总体上显得不足。目前两汉儒学研究存在的问题主要反映在如何就以上三个方面做综合性的研究,这将促进学术界的历史学与…     

明代皇权转移之际的合法性博弈

本文通过对明朝皇权转移之际种种关涉政治合法性的博弈进行考察,透视明代皇位继承的文化和心理条件,对帝制体系运行中传统、实力、社会心理、人事关系间的纠结进行剖析。明代除曾发生建文、永乐间武装争位情况外,其他过渡较平稳的皇权转移仍常伴随围绕政治合法性的博弈,皇帝、士大夫、后妃、贵族、宦官都在其间扮演角色。皇权转移关乎国运、政局、民生,由此形成具有制度、文化、时局综合含义的更替规范和社会期待。这种期待,具有一定程度上降低皇权随意更迭的约束作用,凸显合法性构建的必要,但总体而言,明代皇权转移仍在传统政治范围内,没有发生“转型”的明确迹象。     

齐鲁博士与两汉儒学

“博士”一词,在中国秦汉时期是一种官称。两汉博士见于史书记载而有籍贯可考约百余人,其中齐鲁籍的博士即占半数。齐学与鲁学是两汉儒学的主体,左右着两汉儒学发展的方向,而在其中起主导作用的正是齐鲁博士。汉武帝以后,独尊儒术,仕途几为儒家垄断。齐鲁博士及其弟子大多官至卿相牧守,在内政和外交等重大政治活动中起着举足轻重的作用。     

汉儒理念与价值观研究的方法论问题之理论篇

臧知非《两汉之际儒生价值取向探微》(《史学集刊》2003年2期)的立论,和我近年考析汉儒的文字针锋相对,感觉有必要对考论汉儒所牵涉的一些史学理论和方法提出来讨论。本文“(一)理论篇”讨论法国“年鉴学派·心态史回转到人类文化历史学”的新趋向;这是转向到美国人类学大师罗拔·列德夫(Robert Redfield,1897—1958)所重视的文化“大传统”——对整体文化发展变化的多元和全面意义的理解,综合为文明史的研究——“人文·精神文明”。以中国传统观念来说,聚焦于文化“大传统”,是以“君子”的“价值”理念,来理解和批判两汉儒生;聚焦于文化“小传统”,是以“小人”的“行径”来体认两汉儒生。顾炎武以“大义”、“节义”等理想理念来评论《两汉风俗》;吕思勉、蒙文通(以及臧文未指名的钱穆师和我)则以汉儒“要改正当世社会组织”(传统谓之“济世淑世”)的“志士仁人之公意”、“洪流”来解释新莽政权之兴起;这都是从儒学的“人文精神”“淑世理想”和“学术理念”(文明“大传统”的价值理念)着眼;因而成为聚焦于文化“小传统”价值取向的臧文批评的标的。本文续“考论篇”将进一步讨论在历史考证和分析上研究汉儒的实际问题。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

LEAD ISOTOPE ANALYSES OF ISLAMIC POTTERY GLAZES FROM FUSTAT,EGYPT*

Lead isotope analyses have been undertaken on a group of Islamic lead‐glazed pottery artefacts from Fustat, Egypt, spanning the period from the eighth to the 14th century ad , that had previously been the subject of a comprehensive typological, chronological, petrographic and technological study. Comparison of the lead isotope ratios for the glazes with those for lead ores from Egypt, Iran, Tunisia, Anatolia, Greece, Sardinia and Spain provided information on the possible sources of the lead used in the production of the glazes. The results show that the lead used in glaze production by the Islamic potters at Fustat was most probably obtained from distant ore sources in Iran or Tunisia, Sardinia, Spain and the Taurus Mountains. Different ore sources were favoured in different periods and, to a limited extent, for different types of pottery, but at no time did the Fustat potters use the potentially more accessible Egyptian ore sources.     

Australian Cenozoic Bryozoa, 2: Free-living Cheilostomata of the Eocene St. Vincent Basin,S.A., including Bonellina gen. nov

Schmidt, R., March 2007. Australian Cenozoic Bryozoa, 2: Free-living Cheilostomata of the Eocene St. Vincent Basin, S.A., including Bonellina gen. nov. Alcheringa 31, 67-84. ISSN 0311-5518.

Free-living bryozoans are diverse in the Eocene sediments of the St. Vincent Basin, South Australia. They include Bonellina pentagonalis gen. et sp. nov., Otionellina sp. cf. O. exigua (Tenison Woods), Otionellina sp. cf. O. cupola (Tenison Woods), Tubiporella magna (Tenison Woods), Celleporaria nummularia (Tenison Woods), and an indeterminate species only found as moulds. This diversity and abundance is highest in the sediments representing the initial transgressive marine facies, where they occur in ‘sand fauna’ bryozoan assemblages (e.g. with Melicerita and Siphonicytara). Free-living bryozoans decrease up-section and are absent from latest Eocene sediments, indicating a significant environmental shift.

Rolf Schmidt [rschmid@museum.vic.gov.au], Museum Victoria, Melbourne, Vic 3001, Australia; received 18.3.2005, revised 14.12.2005.