First record of Viperidae snakes from the Pleistocene of southwestern Brazilian Amazonia

We describe an incomplete trunk vertebra of a snake attributable to the Viperidae, collected from a conglomerate facies in upper Pleistocene sediments at the Mississippi locality, Upper Juruá River, southwestern Brazilian Amazonia. It represents the first fossil snake record from the Pleistocene of this region. This specimen extends the fossil distribution of the Viperidae, representing the northernmost record of a snake in the Brazilian Pleistocene.     

A QUESTION OF IDENTITY: A REVIEW OF RECENT WORK ON BLACKS IN CANADA

In 2010 the US declared the Lake Erie water snake a recovered species, but in Canada the snake is still considered to be an endangered species. After explaining the legal similarities between the Ontario Endangered Species Act and the American Endangered Species Act, this article examines a case study with landowner interviews from one US island and one Canadian island. It is concluded that landowner attitudes toward conservation and private property are very similar. Thus, it is argued that bureaucratic differences, particularly institutional capacity and implementation styles, enabled the US but not Canada to recover the snake. The article concludes with a discussion of the need for better communication between the two countries for the purposes of biodiversity conservation.     

史前信仰中神龙形象来源刍议

自古埃及以降的闪米特文明都有神奇蛇的信仰,但这些蛇都是克托尼俄斯的神物,代表地下界,从不升天也不飞翔,这种信仰符合蛇的自然本质。中国的龙为天神,既不符合蛇的本质,又和其他古文明崇拜的蛇神形象大异其趣。中国龙的形象来自昆虫。在大自然中,只有昆虫能由蛇体化为鸟形,也只有昆虫能暂死后再生、升天。古人神化昆虫,这实为龙的形象与崇拜来源。不同地区的萨满教,都有崇拜昆虫变形、羽化神能的痕迹。中国先民确有尚虫信仰。中国龙可能更近似于古埃及的金龟蜣螂甲虫崇拜。尽管埃及的金龟和中国的龙崇拜在起源、发展上关联性不大,但两者的信仰观念与象征意义却相当接近。夏禹形貌为虬龙,其名"禹",恰和"虫"同字,故龙、虫义同。     

An Iron Age II snake cult in the Oman peninsula: evidence from Bithnah (Emirate of Fujairah)

Excavations carried out by the French Archaeological Mission at Bithnah-44/50 (Emirate of Fujairah) have provided new data about Iron Age II cultic practices in the Arabian Peninsula centred on the symbol of the snake. The site includes a public building, various types of shrines, and a central area of offerings where the remains of animal sacrifices were buried in pits. These remains are presented and a preliminary account of the evolution of the site is given on the base of the site's stratigraphy.     

The role of the museum in interpretation: The problem of context

The key questions in interpreting objects in museums are: What are they doing there? and Where did they come from? National and local importance are not mutually exclusive: the critical difference is between intrinsic value, and value through context or association. Context is an integral part of interpretation. Experts can visualise an original location or environment; ordinary museum visitors need the context of people, or place, or familiar activities, to be able to relate to unfamiliar objects. Is seeing a good replica as good as seeing the original?     

关于日本神社原初功能的考察

神社是日本神道的重要组成部分,在神道信仰中扮演着重要角色。本文通过与同样是祭祖场地的中国"社"的对比和对日本早期神社地面结构物和活动状况、神社附加功能的发展、神社的蛇信仰等方面入手,推测神社最初的部分功能可能和中国的"社"等一样,做祈祷生殖繁盛的道场之用。换言之,神社的原初功能有不少,但其中之一可能与生殖崇拜有关。     

A Contextual Analysis of Nervous Force in Medico-Scientific and Literary Writings in English of the Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth Centuries

This study concerns the context of use of the term “nervous force,” as it appears in scientific and literary publications in English over the course of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth century. The context of use, loss, or waste of nervous force and the context of nervous force as an expression of an attribute are analyzed in 189 scientific and 105 literary writings. Both contexts appeared in literary writings, where nervous force expresses the attributes of strength, forcefulness, vigor, or energy and use, loss or waste of nervous force explains such nonmorbid conditions as why someone is tired or needs rest. Only the context of use-loss-waste appeared in the medico-scientific literature, but here it explained both nonmorbid conditions (for example, effects of old age) and morbid conditions (like epilepsy). Changes in the number of these references give insights into the medico-scientific and the literary disciplines. Discussions include why nervous force is associated with explanation of disease, the persistence of its use in this capacity, and its influence on a similar use in literary writings.     

A new giant python from the Pliocene Bluff Downs Local Fauna of northeastern Queensland

Liasis dubudingala n. sp., described on the basis of isolated vertebrae from the Early Pliocene Bluff Downs Local Fauna, is the largest snake known from Australia. Dependance of vertebral proportions on intracolumnar position indicates that the fossil taxon can be excluded from the Morelia/Python clade. High neural spines suggest possible affinity with Liasis olivacea, whereas a posterior dentary fragment with small teeth is unlike L. olivacea and more similar to Liasis mackloti or species of Bothrochilus and Leiopython. As these extant species have all recently been treated as members of Liasis, the new species is assigned to that genus.     

Egyptology and the Bible

Abstract

A dozen Roman engraved gemstones (intaglios) dating from the first century B.C.E. to the third century C.E. were found during the excavations below the southern and western enclosure walls of the Temple Mount (1968–78). Diverse figures are depicted on the gemstones, such as gods, goddesses, heroes, animals and religious symbols. Some of the images are unique and represent the substantial contribution of glyptics to research of antiquity. The intaglio that depicts Tyche of Aelia Capitolin a is the sole representation of the city-goddess in any medium other than city coins. The snake coiled around an altar, a representation of the Genius of the wearer of the gem, has parallels only on wall paintings. The depiction of Telemachos, son of Ulysses, riding a quadriga is the first known depiction of that scene. A finely carved gemstone is the Dionysiac combination of four masks arranged in a form of a grape cluster. Several gems have a strong association with the Roman army, such as the one depicting Mars or the gemstone carved with an imperial eagle. The study of these intaglios provides a glimpse into the personal world of a dozen inhabitants of ancient Jerusalem and illuminates the character of the region revealed at the excavations.     

The power of national symbols: the credibility of a dragon’s efficacy

It is only when symbols gain meaning as effective triggers of associated sentiments in many linked contexts, including that of daily life, that they become powerful. It is what is perceived as the proved ability of the state to correct disobedience to its rule and violation to its sovereignty that commands commitment and loyalty, necessary for state symbols to become effective. As long as the link between symbol and effect can be made credible as a natural connection of cause and effect, by rational or irrational means, by folk narrative or academic theory, triggering the national symbol works in the mind of its believers. In this article I discuss the role of academics in the creation of national symbolism. Using some examples of historical and anthropological interpretations of the notion of the dragon, I argue that the cognitive aspect of nationalism is of crucial importance to the efficacy of national symbols. Thus arguments on the dragon’ various shapes, origins and merits as totem, embryo and sea snake attach and support different symbolic and political meanings of the Chinese nation.     

Politicised linguistic consciousness: the case of Ulster‐Scots

This essay examines the evolution of the Ullans phenomenon in the past decade and sets its emergence in a broad political context. Of particular interest to the writer are the claims made about Ullans and the attempts to constitute these as a viable basis for its justification as a distinct language. While factors motivating the supporters of an Ulster‐Scots cultural tradition are examined, reasons for hostility towards Ullans are also reviewed. As the debate regarding the linguistic status of Ullans rages on, the author analyses the importance of state recognition for the enhancement of a dialect or language. In this essay the case of Ulster‐Scots is set in a strongly comparative context.     

Assessing the Impact of Location on Women's Labor Market Outcomes: A Methodological Exploration

Location and the nature of locally available employment opportunities is believed to shape labor force participation, job type, and wages. Analysts investigating this issue have encountered problems in operationalizing the concept of “locally available employment opportunities.” We first review the grounds for expecting a relationship between local context and employment outcomes for women and then critically assess the methods and measures that analysts have used to explore the relationship. Finally, we describe a new approach for measuring local employment context that consists of a fine-scaled measure individually tailored for each woman in the sample. Using discriminant analysis we ask whether the spatial variables measuring local employment context are important determinants of women's employment in female-dominated occupations. The results suggest that for most groups of women (defined by city or suburban residence and by sociodemographics) the spatial variables are not important. For well-educated, part-time employed women with young children, however, living in an area rich in female-dominated job opportunities increases the likelihood of having a job in a gender-typical occupation; for these women, the local employment context does affect labor market outcomes.     

WHAT I BELIEVE: TAKING UP THE SERPENTS OF SOCIAL THEORY AND SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY

Social theory in Southeastern archaeology is constantly transforming. This generally positive process is nonetheless often fraught with growing pains. A sack of snakes serves as a humorous guise to highlight some of the issues currently being faced with social theory in the Southeast. Each “snake” poses a reality check on contexts of social theory as created by Southeastern archaeologists.     

Site prioritization and the reproduction of inequity in the restoration of Biscayne Bay

The restoration of urban estuaries is challenging due to the complexity of prioritizing sites in a context of social and biophysical unevenness. Site prioritization and selection are crucial components of ecological success and equity in restoration. In many cases, site prioritization is conducted according to simple opportunity or political expediency, but this needs to be investigated further in local contexts, with accompanying analysis of the impacts on urban environmental equity. Using a critical physical geography framework, I explore site selection processes in the restoration of Biscayne Bay through case studies of two urban streams. I use multiple data types to present an integrated perspective on urban restoration priority and the social context that produces restoration siting decisions. I find that the logics of restoration site selection in the Biscayne Bay watershed have produced ecologically questionable decisions and inequitable outcomes. Therefore, I argue that restoration decision making needs to include environmental justice criteria.     

Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear use

Archeological evidence suggests that footwear was in use by at least the middle Upper Paleolithic (Gravettian) in portions of Europe, but the frequency of use and the mechanical protection provided are unclear from these data. A comparative biomechanical analysis of the proximal pedal phalanges of western Eurasian Middle Paleolithic and middle Upper Paleolithic humans, in the context of those of variably shod recent humans, indicates that supportive footwear was rare in the Middle Paleolithic, but that it became frequent by the middle Upper Paleolithic. This interpretation is based principally on the marked reduction in the robusticity of the lesser toes in the context of little or no reduction in overall lower limb locomotor robusticity by the time of the middle Upper Paleolithic.     

Folk-Medicine in County Cork

The records of fabulous stones associated with birds are here examined systematically for the first time. Some were purported to be obtained from within the bird and others obtained from the nest. Zahir mora, the Adjutant Bird Stone, was used against snake bite, whilst Alectorius (the Cock Stone), Aetites (the Eagle Stone) and Vulturis (the Vulture Stone) shared a multiplicity of medicinal applications. Quirin (the Hoopoe Stone), Chloritis (the Wagtail Stone) and Corvina (the Crow Stone) supposedly possessed occult powers. The Penguin Stone, Ostrich Stone and Pigeon Stone were probably gastroliths.     

Evaluating Natural Site Formation Processes in Eolian Dune Sands: A Case Study from the Krmpotich Folsom Site,Killpecker Dunes,Wyoming

Eolian dune sands commonly contain archaeological material in both surface and buried contexts. However, because of the dynamic nature of dunes, the original context of an archaeological site can be severely modified or destroyed as a result of post-occupational geomorphic processes. This paper examines a Folsom occupation associated with a buried soil in the Killpecker Dunes in southwestern Wyoming. Field and labortory data are compared to determine the likely scenario of natural site formation processes responsible for the current context of the archaeological assemblage. Two primary eolian stratigraphic units are present at the site, and are separated by the buried artefact-bearing soil. Radiocarbon and optical luminescence ages indicate that the Folsom artefacts occur across a temporal hiatus, and that the buried soil is late Holocene in age. Sedimentological data indicate that the highest frequencies of artefacts by depth are associated with an erosional contact characterized by a concentration of coarse-grained material. Thus, the Folsom assemblage appears to have been vertically displaced as a result of post-occupational erosion and deflation. This case study indicates that evaluating the context of an archaeological occupation in a dune setting is best carried out utilizing multiple lines of evidence derived from both field and laboratory work.     

HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING AND HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION AS CONTEXTUALIZATION

This article discusses the theoretical problems pertaining to the relationship between historical contextualization and historical understanding and interpretation. On the one hand, there is the view that documents need to be understood in relation to their historical context; on the other, it is not clear how a historian can get out of his or her own historical context in order to be able to engage with the conceptual frameworks, beliefs, or ways of reasoning that are radically different from his or her own. The paper proposes a resolution to this dilemma; its upshot is that historical understanding is constituted by contextualization.     

Ireland and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage

Ratification by Ireland of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage will not be able to take place until after enactment of additional domestic legislation. The reasons for this are examined in the context of Ireland’s legal system. Since 1987 Ireland has had extensive legal protection for underwater cultural heritage, but the jurisdictional aspects of the Convention are key to understanding why additional legislation is necessary. Issues relating to salvage law are also considered. The 2001 Convention is placed in the context of development of Irish policy on underwater cultural heritage.