Representation and identity ‐ convergence of brain research and mind‐brain philosophy

Abstract

The localization or representation of mental abilities in the brain have always been considered as key questions for understanding the organization of the human nervous system. Particularly with the advent of modern electrophysiological and imaging techniques that provide maps of electromagnetic fields and metabolic processes on the living central nervous system, the representation theory is experiencing a scientific renaissance in neurology, but is only one theory, however, in the succession of a long philosophical tradition dealing with the possible identification of mental phenomena and brain processes. This dichotomy was formulated at the latest in the Cartesian dualism of res cogitans and res extensa of the mind‐body problem. Nowadays philosophical discussion, on the contrary, is dominated by monistic concepts that attempt to explain the mental realm on an organic foundation in order not to succumb to the problem of a psychophysical dualism. Of these, the identity theory offers a philosophically plausible concept postulating that the identity of brain conditions and mental phenomena is based on organic foundations. In this theory, the efforts of brain research converge on the representations of mental phenomena in the human nervous system. In a comprehensive approach, both concepts could complement each other.     

« Das Körper-Seele Problem »

During the 19^th century, the question of the relation between the soul and the body was deeply renewed by German psychological studies. The new elaborated conception of the relationship between the psychical and the physical coincides with the appearance of a cognitivist paradigm, in which mental phenomena are considered as entities that may be individualised, isolated, and then correlated with the activity of specific neural substrates. German psychologists were confronted with the problem of the correlation between psychical life and the nervous system (localisation of mental phenomena and nature of this correlative relationship), and propose an extensive analysis on the neural conditions and the emergence of psychical processes.     

On the energy cost of mental effort

The discovery of the Law of Conservation of Energy in the 1840s had consequences for psychological theory. Does the process of thinking involve a novel form of energy that is not recognized by physical science? E. L. Youmans (1821-1887) argued that "mental operations are dependent upon material changes in the nervous system." Kurd Lasswitz (1848-1910) introduced the term "psychophysical energy," based upon the electrical activity of the brain. At the beginning of the twentieth century Alfred Lehmann (1858-1921) claimed that intense mental effort leads to a net increase in oxygen utilization and regarded this as evidence of a specific psychic energy. His views were adopted and extended by Hans Berger (1873-1941). F. G. Benedict (1870-1957), drawing upon extensive experience with balance experiments conducted on humans in large-scale respiration calorimeters, concluded that mental effort probably had no effect upon the brain's metabolism. Modern approaches to the problem make use of PET imaging, which detects local changes in glucose utilization by the brain during cognitive activity.     

The Neurophysiological Aspects of Pavlov’s Theory of Higher Nervous Activity: In Honor of the 150th Anniversary of Pavlov’s Birth

Whereas Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) is well-known for his work on classical conditioning, his contribution to neuroscience, particularly his interest in the function of neural centers in the central nervous system, is not as widely known. During the last three decades of his life, Pavlov explored cortical processes by salivary reflex conditioning, a method he used to develop his theory of higher nervous activity. This theory outlined the function of the brain in higher organisms in their interaction with the changing environmental contingencies. As early as 1908, Pavlov outlined a neurophysiological theory as the physiological basis of his theory of higher nervous activity. He maintained that the neural processes of excitation and inhibition irradiate and concentrate among the cortical neural centers. Most of all, he emphasized the plasticity of the cortex in higher organisms’ in the Darwinian struggle for existence.     

The neurophysiological aspects of Pavlov's theory of higher nervous activity: in honor of the 150th anniversary of Pavlov's birth

Whereas Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) is well-known for his work on classical conditioning, his contribution to neuroscience, particularly his interest in the function of neural centers in the central nervous system, is not as widely known. During the last three decades of his life, Pavlov explored cortical processes by salivary reflex conditioning, a method he used to develop his theory of higher nervous activity. This theory outlined the function of the brain in higher organisms in their interaction with the changing environmental contingencies. As early as 1908, Pavlov outlined a neurophysiological theory as the physiological basis of his theory of higher nervous activity. He maintained that the neural processes of excitation and inhibition irradiate and concentrate among the cortical neural centers. Most of all, he emphasized the plasticity of the cortex in higher organisms' in the Darwinian struggle for existence.     

Johann August Philipp Gesner (1738-1801). A review of his essay "The language amnesia" in the bicentennial anniversary of his death

On the 200th anniversary of Johann August Philipp Gesner's death, this paper summarizes and discusses a paper on language amnesia published in 1770. The author had clear knowledge of selective mental impairments resulting from brain diseases, and of separate mental representations for words and their underlying concepts. However, to explain the language impairment, Gesner suggested that it would not be caused by focal damage to a specific anatomic and functional unit of the mind, but is the consequence of a general sluggishness of the mental processes.     

Integrating concepts in the teaching of geography in higher education

Abstract

To be coherent and effective, teaching programmes require broad integrating concepts. Such paradigms of modern geography as quantification, behaviouralism, Marxism, and systems theory are discussed as a guide to finding these concepts. Any frameworks that are adopted must recognise the dualism between methodological and theoretical concepts.     

Johann August Philipp Gesner (1738–1801). A Review of His Essay “The Language Amnesia” in The Bicentennial Anniversary of His Death

On the 200th anniversary of Johann August Philipp Gesner's death, this paper summarizes and discusses a paper on language amnesia published in 1770. The author had clear knowledge of selective mental impairments resulting from brain diseases, and of separate mental representations for words and their underlying concepts. However, to explain the language impairment, Gesner suggested that it would not be caused by focal damage to a specific anatomic and functional unit of the mind, but is the consequence of a general sluggishness of the mental processes.     

National History, Non-national Archaeology: The Case of Denmark

The early development of Danish archaeology (including the centuries before AD 1800) is discussed in terms of its relationship with national history, and with various ideas about regional phenomena and concepts of cultural identity. Danish archaeologists followed a dual strategy, by subscribing both to national sentiment, but also to the 'un-national' notion of close culture-historical links between regions. Confusion of text-based historical aims, and those of archaeology, caused problems. The main strengths of archaeology – its unique material perspective and concepts, historical, spatial, and contextual (including social and mental dimensions) – are stressed.     

Du parallélisme au fonctionnalisme contemporain

Résumé  Cette étude se propose de mettre en relief plusieurs analogies structurelles entre la conception spinoziste et la conception fonctionnaliste, développée par Hilary Putnam, de l'activité mentale. Ces conceptions, l'une classique, l'autre contemporaine, en marge de leurs divergences manifestes, paraissent toutes deux récuser aussi bien le dualisme substantiel qu'une lecture physicaliste de l'activité mentale, représentée en particulier par la théorie de l'identité entre états mentaux et états cérébraux. La confrontation entre la philosophie de Spinoza et celle de Putnam, dans l'ordre de la théorie de l'esprit, s'établit en trois points. Est d'abord examiné le postulat de l'autonomie explicative du mental. Le second point concerne la résolution du problème de l'union du corps et de l'esprit, par le recours aux notions d'organisation et d'isomorphisme fonctionnel, au principe de la thèse d'une identité psychophysique non substantielle. L'étude s'achève sur l'évocation du modèle mécanique de l'esprit, et de son identification à un dispositif automatique abstrait, automate spirituel selon Spinoza, machine de Turing selon Putnam. The aim of this paper is to underline some structural analogies between the spinozistic conception of mental activity, and the functionalist one, as it was developed by Hilary Putnam. Both of these conceptions, one classic and one contemporary, though obviously different from one another, seem to reject substance dualism as well as any physicalist approach to mental activity, namely the mind-brain identity theory. Our comparison between Spinoza's philosophy and Putnam's, as far as the theory of mind is concerned, goes along three lines. We first examine the postulate of the explanatory autonomy of the mental. Then we analyze a solution to the mind-body problem, which involves the concepts of organization and functional isomorphism: such a solution leads to the claim of a non-substantial psychophysical identity. In the end, we focus the analysis on the mechanical characterization of the mind, and on the identification of the mind to an abstract automatic device, represented by the spiritual automaton in Spinoza's philosophy, and by the Turing machine in Putnam's functionalist theory. PascaleGillot, née en 1967, agrégée et docteur en philosophie, est directrice de programme au Collège international de philosophie. Ses travaux de recherche portent sur la constitution des théories modernes de l'esprit dans la philosophie du XVII^e siècle, et sur la relation entre ces théories de l'esprit et laphilosophy of mind contemporaine.     

Images of the third world: teaching a geography of the third world

Abstract

This paper focuses on how to teach undergraduate students to analyse critically various received images of the Third World. This is achieved through the use of a detailed practical exercise which is based on poster, newspaper and map representation of the Third World. The concepts of identity, positionality and representation are reviewed and there is a discussion of how an awareness of these concepts should help students understand the influencing power of stereotypical images of distant others.     

西方主义与实证主义幻象:近三十年来中国人文地理学理论研究透视

基于对近三十年来中国人文地理学理论研究的文献解读,将中国人文地理学的理论演进脉络划分为三个阶段,即1980年代的理论引进、1990年代的理论消化和21世纪以来内生-外生并存阶段。将当前中国人文地理学理论研究的主要特征概括为两点,即"西方主义"和"实证主义",并认为其背后的思想根源是"实用主义"。通过文献梳理本文认为,实用主义思维是近三十年中国人文地理学理论成果缺少的主要原因。而要推动中国人文地理学的理论研究,必须同时重视两个方面,一是加强批判性研究,二是基于自身观察的本土概念总结。最后,本文结合当前研究现状,对推进中国人文地理学的理论研究提出若干建议。     

当代西方"新文化地理学"知识谱系引论

当代西方人地理学在“后现代地理学”之后蓬勃发展起“新化地理学”。新化地理学是地理学的“化转向”和“化研究”以及社会科学普遍的“空间转向”之后的学术互动产物。它与地理学以往的知识遗产包括传统的化地理学既有联系也存在从研究议题、概念、认识论和方法论的重大差别,是走向批评范式的人化和理论化的知识体系。本立足丰富庞杂的理论献,全面综述和分析了新化地理学的知识谱系和未来的发展走向。     

Divergence,Sensitivity, and Nonequilibrium in Ecosystems

Contemporary theoretical debate in ecology and biogeography is often focused on equilibrium vs. nonequilibrium behavior in ecosystems and on the nature and source of ecosystem dynamics. It is suggested that these debates be recast in terms of the way ecosystems develop and respond to disturbances, rather than in terms of concepts often imported from mathematics, physics, and other fields. Using nonlinear dynamical systems theory, it is shown that key theoretical implications can be cast in terms of geoecologically significant phenomenologies such as divergent evolution, sensitivity to initial conditions and small disturbances, historical contingency, and path dependence. Examples show these phenomena are widely observed in ecosystems. Ecological and biogeographical theory can be problematized from within geography and ecology rather than fuzzy, abstract concepts such as equilibrium, self‐organization, “balance of nature,” or chaos. Complexity, sensitivity, variability, nonsteady states, and other concepts often associated with nonequilibrium or complexity‐theory frameworks have manifestations that are evident in observable ecological phenomena, in addition to theory and models.     

General Geographic Concepts

Following are fragments of a book devoted to theoretical geography on which Professor Smirnov, head of the Department of Economic Geography of Odessa University, was working at the time of his death in July, 1969. An attempt is made to formulate a system of general geographic concepts that would constitute the axiomatic foundation of geography. Several types of fundamental concepts are distinguished: spatial concepts; concepts of the structure and functions of geographical formations; concepts of simple and complex formations, etc. The present paper is limited to an examination of spatial concepts associated with geographical space, which is viewed as one of the general properties of geographical formations. Three basic spatial concepts are discussed: (a) the concept of group space, meaning the space occupied by a set of interrelated objects, as opposed to the individual space of a single object; (b) the concept of spatial integration of phenomena, implying causal relationships; (c) the concept of geographical commonality of phenomena, as opposed to the theory of uniqueness or local exclusiveness. The interplay of general laws and purely local relationships gives rise to a spatial field of interaction known as the geographical field. A geographical formation and its field of interaction may be centered, as in urban settlement, industry and other nodal phenomena, or they may be noncentered, as in rural settlement, agriculture and other spatially continuous phenomena. Other concepts are the area, shape, orientation and spatial dynamics of development of geographical formations.     

From the Mind to the Brain: An Unusual Pathway

One of the most unrecognized aspects of Golgi's life was his deep interest in neuropsychiatry. From 1865 to 1868 he attended the Clinica per le Malattie Nervose e Mentali in Pavia directed by Cesare Lombroso, the founder of modern criminology. Golgi was involved in research on the etiology of psychiatric ailments. During this short period of time he produced significant theoretic advances in clinical psychiatry. However, very soon he started to criticize the conceptual approach as well as the nosological system proposed by his academic mentor. In July 1868 he left Lombroso's school in search for a more rational method of studying brain functions and diseases. In spite of his anatomical approach to the central nervous system, he always maintained curiosity in the phenomenology of functional and organic mental disorders. This predisposition is witnessed by his capability to relate clinical observations to neuropathological findings.     

Systems Theory and Skeptical Humanism in French Ecological Thought

In systems theory, nature appears as an intricate interweaving of homeostatic processes–processes that mankind disrupts at its own peril. For many non-French ecologists, only respecting nature's "intrinsic value" will avert catastrophe. Such reasoning is rare in France. In its place, theorists like Edgar Morin and Michel Serres promote a systems-inspired ecologism that skirts the problematic dualism of nature and humanity by questioning skeptically how we understand both the world and ourselves.     

关于旅游现象的生存论本质

旅游现象的生成是建立在生存论的前提基础上,即人首先要满足生理生存需求和谋生生存需要,才会有旅游需求和行为的发生。人们在居住地惯常生活环境的生存谋生状态,决定了休闲和旅游的本质差异。旅游研究只有回到生存论前提,旅游现象和概念的本质才有可能得到深刻揭示：旅游就是人们通过筹划,离开和返回惯常生活环境,体验并满足非谋生需求的生存活动。     

服务业地理学的理论与人文地理学方法论革新探讨

长期以来,对服务业地理学的理论研究、特别是研究方法论的哲学探讨往往重视不够。文章探讨了服务业地理学研究的一般意义和特殊意义,在此基础上,对服务业地理学方法论进行了深入探讨。从而得到了人文地理学方法论研究的几点启示。研究结果表明:借助人地全息统一论与城市全息地域结构的研究成果,并从信息哲学的角度,对服务业空间规律的分布、服务业空间组合与形态、服务活动区位等进行研究,将是一个重要的研究思路和方向。     

Pioneers of Affective Neuroscience and Early Concepts of the Emotional Brain

Views on the representation of emotion in the brain, as formulated about a century ago, are described, with a focus on the Vienna physiologist and psychologist Sigmund Exner, the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, and the French physician Israel Waynbaum. All three can be characterized as forerunners in the field of “affective neuroscience”. By the turn of the century, they had developed a neural network theory of emotion which included a stage of pre-cortical processing. In spite of their otherwise very diverse theoretical backgrounds, their concepts of parallel processing routes were highly similar. It is interesting to note that their ideas were on line with present-day views on the neural substrates and physiological characteristics of emotional processing, although none of the three scientists could rely on the refined anatomical knowledge available nowadays.