关中地区史前动物考古学研究的几个问题

关中地区动物考古学研究起步较早,而且成果突出,如半坡遗址和姜寨遗址出土的动物遗存研究报告在我国动物考古学史上有着里程碑性的意义①.目前该地区已积累的动物考古学基础资料比较丰富,专门作过动物骨骼鉴定研究报告的史前遗址就有临潼白家村②、零口村③、姜寨④、康家⑤、西安半坡⑥、扶风案板⑦、宝鸡北首岭⑧、关桃园⑨、福临堡⑩等,这些材料涵括了本地史前文化发展的各个阶段.     

Unsettling Time: Persistence and Memory in Spanish Colonial Peru

In this paper, I explore the politics of memory during the Toledan reforms—a series of ambitious administrative changes legislated in colonial Peru between 1569 and 1581, by viceroy Francisco de Toledo. At the center of Toledo’s project was an initiative to resettle the entire native population of the audiencias of Lima and Charcas into a series of planned towns called reducciones. This movement—reducción—sought to transform Andean indigenous peoples into subjects of the Catholic Church and the Spanish crown through a series of explicitly spatial operations, including regional population nucleation and settlement planning. But the terms of these changes were also temporal: as reducción shaped landscapes and built environments, it also sought to transform indigenous historicity, bringing native peoples into the Era of Christ and carefully regulating the social institutions and practices by which they accounted for their pasts. The Toledan reforms therefore present a clear example of one empire’s attempts to subjugate conquered peoples through mnemonic practices. Yet archaeological research in one corner of the viceroyalty—Peru’s Zaña valley—suggests that the story of how indigenous memories were actually shaped during the course of resettlement and its aftermath was far from straightforward. To understand these transformations, I argue that we must explore not only the short-term dialectic of Spanish designs and their indigenous responses, but also the “afterlives” of reduccion in the 17th and 18th centuries. Over the longer term, reducción achieved staying power through a series of unanticipated pathways, in which landscape change, demography, and indigenous agency all played essential roles. I argue that these developments ultimately resulted in much more complex forms of remembering than those implicit in reducción legislation and that they underscore the importance for archaeological studies of memory of attending both to the materiality of imperial landscapes and long-term processes of subject formation.     

Painting Andean Liminalities at the Church of Andahuaylillas,Cuzco, Peru

The church of Andahuaylillas located near Cuzco, Peru, is frequently hailed for its lush interior decorations and seventeenth-century mural paintings. One mural image in particular has captured the sustained attention of scholars for decades: the entrance wall mural entitled Camino del cielo e infierno depicting a complex allegory of good and bad faith. This article explores the mural's connections to a Flemish print and a Spanish auto sacramental (a one-act play associated with Corpus Christi), demonstrating the hitherto unexamined relationships between mural painting, print culture, and religious theatre in the Andes. It also considers the inclusion of local indigenous and Inca references in the mural that were simultaneously subsumed within discourses of idolatry while at the same time granting visibility and legitimacy to indigenous Andeans. This article brings to light the plurality of meanings invested in Heaven and Hell as both destination and journey among Spanish ecclesiastics and their indigenous constituents.     

Excavations at Huaca Herederos Chica,Moche Valley,Peru

Abstract

Detailed results of excavations from 1970 to 1973 at the site of Huaca Herederos Chica in the lower Moche Valley, Peru are presented. This now partially destroyed monumental site belongs to the Caballo Muerto Complex, a series of mound sites that span both the Initial Period (2100–1200 CAL B.C.) and the Early Horizon (1200–200 CAL B.C.). The existing mounds were constructed sequentially over a period of some 1000 years; some mounds, like Huaca Herederos Chica, are the result of the superposition of several phases of occupation and building over that long time period, each separated by phases of abandonment. The older remains, dating from the Initial Period, testify to the presence in this coastal region of Peru of architectural features such as small quadrilateral rooms with rounded corners and somewhat circular rooms reminiscent of similar features of the Kotosh Religious Tradition at the highland sites of La Galgada and Huaricoto as well as in the coastal Casma Valley. Huaca Herederos Chica was abandoned from 1200–400 CAL B.C. only to be reoccupied and rebuilt in the late Early Horizon (400–200 CAL B.C.). Architectural changes seen at the site and at the Caballo Muerto Complex as a whole probably reflect important social and political changes along much of the Peruvian north coast.     

Zooarchaeology in Complex Societies: Political Economy, Status, and Ideology

The zooarchaeology of complex societies provides insights into the interrelated social and economic relationships that people and animals created. I present a synthesis of zooarchaeological research published since the early 1990s that addresses political economy, status distinctions, and the ideological and ritual roles of animals in complex cultures. I address current approaches and applications as well as theoretical shifts in zooarchaeological practice. Research indicates there is great variability across space and time in how past peoples used animals to generate economic surplus, to establish status differentiation within societies, and to create symbolic meaning through sacrifices, offerings, and in feasts. The study of human/animal interactions in complex societies can contribute to fundamental questions of broad relevance regarding political and social life.     

《萧山市志》承接前志的实践

《萧山市志》不仅利用述、记、志、传、表、录承接前志,而且还利用"注"的方式承接前志,操作方法有三:1.一段注释法。即对一句话加注,一段注释事物的发端、发展情况,直至与续志上限相衔接。2.分段注释法。即连续对几个句子加注,分段注释事物的发端、发展、曲折和变化情况,直至与续志的上限相衔接。3.直接注释法。即对记述事物的标题加注,直接注释事物的整个发展过程,直到与续志的上限相衔接。在操作中注重做到四个方面:一是做到记述事物从发端开始,查不到发端时间的,从有文献记述的年代开始,直到前志下限的发展过程。二是做到"简",高度概括前志内容,以达到明晰事物发展过程为目的,重点记述续志上下限时段内事物的发展变化情况。三是做到站在时代的高度,对事物的历史发展赋予新的更深刻的认识,而不完全照搬前志。四是做到所注句子的针对性、科学性,并注意不与其他所注句子重复,以免损害志书质量。《萧山市志》利用"注"承接前志,不但能记述事物发展的全过程,而且方便读者。     

Transnational Migration and the Economy of Funerals: Changing Practices in Ghana

Migrants are increasingly leading transnational lives, impacting the institutions that shape local economies both in their place of residence and in their home communities. One example of this is the institution of funerals in developing countries. Funerals are becoming multi‐sited events as migrants from developing countries play important roles in the organization, financing and practice of funeral ceremonies in their home countries. Funerals thus give rise to flows of money, goods and people across national borders, ultimately affecting different economies around the world. This article uses a multi‐sited research design to follow the flows associated with a funeral held in a village in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Detailed data were collected simultaneously in four locations involved in the funeral, and a multiplier analysis was used to trace funeral spending in different locations and sectors. The analysis shows that funeral spending supports various economic sectors in Ghana and across the globe, reinforcing the nature of funerals as (partly) economic events, which should be included in economic analyses of remittances and migration. Funeral practices are modified in various ways to accommodate transnational elements. At the same time, funerals continue to act, even in a transnational context, as occasions for reaffirming ties and a sense of belonging; they form a way for home communities, both rural and urban, to keep migrants interested in them.     

Obsidian hydration at high elevation: Archaic quarrying at the Chivay source,southern Peru

We examine obsidian hydration as a means to date archaeological sites at high elevation in the central Andes, and in particular quarry sites that are difficult to date by radiocarbon means. The Chivay obsidian source lies in a volcanic depression above the Colca Valley in Arequipa, Peru (71.5355° S, 15.6423° E) at 4950 masl. We compare obsidian hydration readings from one quarry and two workshop locations. Ninety-one flakes from the quarry pit, and 61 and 33 flakes from the workshops were analyzed for hydration bands. Of these, 68 from the quarry, and 54 and 33, respectively from the workshops produced at least one culturally meaningful hydration band. As expected, obsidian appears to hydrate slowly at this high elevation. Yet, variation in hydration readings is low within stratigraphic contexts, suggesting relatively narrow windows of knapping activities in each excavation level. A small number of radiocarbon dates allow us to develop a preliminary hydration rate for Chivay obsidian in this high elevation location. Hydration data indicate that intensive quarrying began by 3800 cal. BC and stopped ca. 2300 cal. BC. By contrast, the two workshops appear to have been deposited 2900 and 1200 cal. BC, and 2700 and 2400 cal. BC. The data are consistent with an uptick in obsidian use by at least the Terminal Archaic period.     

Zooarchaeology of the Middle Stone Age in Magubike Rockshelter,Iringa Region,Tanzania

African Archaeological Review - The analysis of the faunal remains from Middle Stone Age deposits of Magubike rockshelter was undertaken to contribute to the modern human behavior debate....     

Following Suit: Men,Masculinity and Gendered Practices in the Clothing Trade in Leeds,England, 1890–1940

This paper explores the processes by which the majority of British men came to wear a suit for most occasions during the first part of the twentieth century. It examines the nature of the product and emphasises the gendered experience of making and buying suits. Using the Leeds tailoring trade as a case study, it concludes that the rise of the suit can be attributed to the gendering of production – whereby the intensification of low–paid female labour sustained profitability – and to the gendering of consumption, in which the masculinity of the shopping environment was crucial.     

Feasting landscapes and political economy at the Early Horizon center of Huambacho, Nepeña Valley, Peru

The present contribution examines feasting practices at Huambacho (800–200 cal. B.C.), an Early Horizon elite center of the Nepeña Valley, Department of Ancash, Peru. Feasts are approached as long-term strategies essential to the political economy of human societies. Drawing upon data from public architecture, material culture and food remains, the study closely considers feasts as political actions and investigates the organization and social meaning of these special events. At Huambacho, I contend that the diacritical aspects of feasting practices, such as the use of exclusive spaces and special paraphernalia, contributed to the dual celebration of communal identity and prosperity, and the creation and reproduction of social inequalities. The research highlights the dual centripetal and centrifugal dynamics of Early Horizon feasts and demonstrates the role of the Huambacho center in advertising the success of the local community based on new forms of production and innovative rules of commensal hospitality.     

Living and dying as subjects of the Inca Empire: Adult diet and health at Puruchuco-Huaquerones,Peru

Imperial strategies varied as the Inca expanded their empire from the capital in Cusco. Some communities were conquered violently while others were ruled indirectly with little evidence of Inca presence. According to ethnohistorical evidence, the central coast was peacefully annexed by the Incas ca. A.D. 1470, but little is known about how Inca imperialism may have affected the quality of life of subjects of the Inca Empire. We integrate multiple lines of evidence to assess diet, health and disease for a sample of human remains from the Late Horizon cemetery of Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru. Specifically, we examine and analyze osteological, dental and stable isotope data (n = 162, 90 and 46 respectively) in order to investigate whether the Inca period population at Puruchuco-Huaquerones experienced nutritionally insufficient diets and poor health under imperial policies. Diet at Puruchuco-Huaquerones incorporated a variety of foods, both plant and animal. Osteological lesions and stature indicate periods of stress, with males experiencing more illness relative to females. Stature sexual dimorphism, the presence of healed lesions and isotope data indicate a sufficiently nutritious diet and support the conclusion that, although disease was present, individuals were healthy enough to survive and recover. Geographical and temporal comparisons suggest that health changed little with the Inca annexation of this region, but future work is needed.     

Zooarchaeology for the City: An Urban Case, La Boca, Buenos Aires City, circa 1860

Zooarchaeological works in the city lack of a specific theoretical and methodological framework to understand its faunal assemblages. The different analyses were done in most cases following procedures that had been developed for hunter-gatherer contexts. In this paper, we evaluate some questions related to this issue, encompassed in the acquisition mode and the characteristics of the archaeological record. Finally, an example from two sites in La Boca, Buenos Aires city, Argentina is given in order to understand some of these questions.     

Avian resources at a Mexican site at the time of the Spanish Conquest

The time of the Spanish Conquest in America saw a major biological interchange caused by human action. In the native people it was expressed by major changes in the use of animals, due to the introduction of domestic European fauna. This theme is discussed here based on a review of ethnohistorical sources and a small body of recent archaeological evidence. An analysis is presented of the use of birds at a Mexican settlement inhabited in the sixteenth century at the time of Spanish contact. The bird remains, 456 fragments, are from the site of El Japon, southeast of Mexico City. The main avian resources were domestic fowl, Gallus gallus, turkey, Meleagris gallopavo, and four species of ducks. The exploitation of scrub jay, Apheolocoura coerulescens is recorded for the first time in Mexican archaeo-ornithology. The study confirms ethnohistorical information about the introduction of the domestic fowl, but also shows that native resources were more widely used than is known from the chronicles of the sixteenth century. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Landscape Construction and Long-Term Economic Practices: an Example from the Spanish Mediterranean Uplands Through Rock Art Archaeology

We argue in this paper that Levantine rock art in the Spanish Mediterranean basin allows us to ‘map’ the economic landscape of its makers. Rock art would be the ‘monumental’ side of a dual process of landscape construction: on the one hand, rock art is the first ‘cultural’ action on the landscape beginning in the Early Neolithic; on the other hand, the first evidence of active modification of the Mediterranean vegetation comes from this period. But this evidence as well as other kinds of archaeological remains are still relatively scarce in the uplands; rock art is therefore the most complete type of evidence we can use to support an early use of the Mediterranean upland environment. We use statistical and geographical analysis, together with archaeological, ethnohistorical, and ethnographic sources and pollen data, in order to support the idea of early use and exploitation of the Mediterranean uplands since the Neolithic, and into contemporary times.     

Insights into immigration and social class at Machu Picchu,Peru based on oxygen,strontium, and lead isotopic analysis

The Inca Empire (AD 1438–1532) made common practice of relocating individuals, households and entire communities throughout their expansive realm for different reasons depending on subjects' assigned social class. Reconstructing patterns of immigration at Inca-period sites could therefore permit some estimation of the social class(es) among their constituents, and thereby provide insights into the functional dynamics of Inca political economy. However, this is a difficult endeavor using only archaeological lines of evidence. This study presents oxygen, strontium and lead isotopic results from the well-preserved, well-contextualized skeletal population (N = 74) from the Inca site of Machu Picchu, Peru. Isotopic data are used to reconstruct patterns of immigration at the site, which are in turn used to directly estimate the social class of the population. The resulting isotopic data are widely distributed with no apparent modality, matching the expected distribution of a particular class of nonelite retainers. A novel application of multivariate statistics coupled with geological and faunal isotopic reference data also permits tentative estimation of individuals' regions of origin. This study provides empirical and analytical frameworks for future research in reconstructing residential movement and class dynamics in the late prehistoric Andes.