Leibniz on Diplomacy and Discernible Art

Abstract

This article discusses Leibniz’s unique blend of aesthetics and diplomacy. While his art extended diplomacy beyond the bounds of political realism, his diplomacy gave occasion to his art. His identity of indiscernibles (objects with the same properties are identical) inspired philosopher Arthur Danto to define contemporary art in terms of a qualitative perceptual division between the world and the Artworld (objects with the same properties may or may not be art). Although Leibniz would have disputed Danto’s bifurcated artistic perspective, Danto vindicates Leibniz’s major contribution to contemporary aesthetic philosophy by defending his belief in the moral foundation of art. Leibniz was not only one of the pre-eminent men of German letters of his time, he also excelled in diplomacy on behalf of the Hanoverian court. His international relations (IR) theory of peace through grand global alliances is only just beginning to be understood, though his aesthetics and correct diplomacy continue to validate individual creativity, liberal freedoms, and universal enlightenment up to this very day.     

The Double Legacy of Bernalism in Science Diplomacy

Recent debates in the history of science aimed at reconstructing the history of scientific diplomacy have privileged the analysis of forms of diplomacy coming from above. Instead, the objective of this paper is to raise awareness of these debates by looking at attempts at scientific diplomacy from below. Such a shift in perspective might allow us to observe the impact of marginalized social agents on the construction of international diplomatic choices. This article particularly focuses attention on how the legacy of Bernalism has fostered the emergence of two different types of science diplomacy. On the one hand, Bernalism has influenced the goals of organizations such as UNESCO and the World Peace Council, which are forms of science diplomacy I would term from above. On the other hand, Bernalism has also been at the origin of radical scientific movements that I propose to interpret as forms of scientific diplomacy from below. These have, in fact, played a cardinal role not only in raising public awareness of the social and political roles of science, but also in the more direct participation of scientists in defining the political objectives of their research activity. From this point of view, I analyze how an association like the World Federation of Scientific Workers proposed (at least in the beginning) greater democratic participation than the top-down structures of other forms of scientific internationalism.     

The History and Historiography of American Diplomacy: Principles, Traditions and Values

The Council on Foreign Relations in New York is known throughout the world both as a leading centre for the study of international affairs and as having an influential voice in current debates on the future global role of the United States. Since the First World War the Council has promoted these goals through organizing working groups, sponsoring specialized monographs, and publishing a number of journals and yearbooks. The Council has now sponsored the publication of a multivolume encyclopaedic dictionary of American foreign relations. Michael Dunne's review of these four volumes concentrates on the broad themes which run through the many hundreds of essays, and asks whether the study of the American diplomatic past can help us to understand the special features of the course and conduct of US foreign relations.     

冷战后宗教与美国外交——动力、路线与机制

冷战后,宗教对美国外交的影响日益走向组织化、法制化和机制化,呈现出以宗教利益集团为动力、以在国会推进1998年国际宗教自由法为路线、以国务院国际宗教自由办公室和国会国际宗教自由委员会互动合作为机制的发展趋势。在此背景下,美国对华外交中也凸显宗教因素。     

美国私人基金会参与文化外交的历程与动因

二战前美国私人基金会以慈善国际输出为参与文化外交的主要方式,并外溢出强烈的宗教使命感;冷战期间,通过向盟国输出美国文化、推动社会科学为现实政治服务等方式成为文化冷战的有力工具,彰显出强烈的国家使命意识。美国私人基金会对文化外交的热衷,一方面深受传统慈善思想以及自由主义和理想主义两种政治思想的影响;另一方面则是适应国内国际矛盾斗争的现实需要。美国私人基金会对国际文化交流客观上发挥了一定积极作用;同时作为美国社会机制的一部分,它始终服务于美国国家利益,不可避免地带有文化霸权的倾向。     

美国文化外交及其在波兰的运用

文化外交,在国际关系中作用越来越重要。冷战中美国对苏联东欧的文化外交,即美国政府对苏联东欧人民的以传播美国文化为核心内容的外交,是美国对苏东“双轨政策”中的重要一轨,也是美国对苏东和平演变战略的一个重要方面。本文以美国对波兰的文化外交为窗口,对美国文化外交的实质、策略、特点进行细致的考察和分析。