Supra-Regional Networks in the Neolithic of Southwest Asia

When prehistoric archaeologists write accounts of the Epi-palaeolithic or Neolithic of southwest Asia, they resort to an archaic narrative style of culture-history that was formulated by Gordon Childe in the first half of the last century. These narratives frame their account of events within the format of a succession of archaeological cultures. In addition, the received form of the narrative is founded within a core-area of the Levant, the Mediterranean corridor zone; it is assumed that all the important social and economic innovations of the Epi-palaeolithic and early Neolithic occurred within that corridor, from where the cultures and their innovations spread through diffusionary processes to dominate wider parts of the region. The first part of this paper is a critique of the unwarranted assumption of the existence of archaeological cultures, and of the Levantine primacy hypothesis. The second part proposes an alternative to the notion of the archaeological culture. First, we review the evidence for wide-area cultural networking through the exchange of goods and materials and the sharing of cultural behaviours that characterises the Neolithic. We can view the Epi-palaeolithic and early Neolithic periods as a time when new cultural processes were being employed to build and maintain novel sedentary, permanently co-resident communities of unprecedented scale. At a higher level, we see communities engaged in the construction and maintenance of more and more extensive networks of communities, in a form similar to, but not identical with, the peer polity interaction sphere model first described by Colin Renfrew in a different context.

An estimator for bidirectional (naviform) blade productivity in the Near Eastern Pre-Pottery Neolithic B

A method is presented for calculating the blade productivity of bidirectional (naviform) blade cores, a hallmark of Near Eastern Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) chipped stone tool assemblages. This approach involves estimating the volume of the core that furnished serial blades, together with the mean volume of a typical targeted blade blank. Simple computation of the volume of a wedge in both instances provides an estimate of the number of targeted blades that were produced in an average single reduction sequence. The method is checked against two replicated bidirectional blade reduction sequences, and a refitted bidirectional blade core from the site of Kfar HaHoresh, Israel. Finally, a case study from Kfar HaHoresh is presented in order to illustrate the application of the method, which may have ramifications concerning the evaluation of incipient craft specialization in the region.     

Transformations in an early agricultural society: Feasting in the southern Levantine Pre-Pottery Neolithic

Feasting is a powerful and transformative phenomenon. Societies are both integrated and differentiated through feasting; identities are both enacted and altered; and ideologies are inculcated. This paper uses ethnographic data to establish criteria for the archaeological recognition of prehistoric feasting. These criteria are then used to assess the changing evidence for feasting across the southern Levantine Pre-Pottery Neolithic (ca. 10,200–7500 BP/9700–6250 cal BC), with the aim of shedding light on changes in social organization across the transition to agriculture.During most of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, the extent and scale of feasting expanded as sociopolitical complexity increased. Towards the end of the period, however, populations dispersed and feasting probably declined. Feasts were simultaneously integrative and competitive, ameliorating scalar stress even as they offered opportunities for individual or household competition. Feasts may also have played a key role in conferring ideological prominence on Neolithic cattle, and perhaps even contributed to their adoption as domesticates.     

论新石器时代中原文化的历史地位

可能是由于受气候环境周期性变化的制约,新石器时代中原化的实力、内部统一性和对外化关系呈现出2000年左右的周期性变化。正是在这种周期性的变化过程中,中原化得以呈螺旋式发展壮大,“中国相互作用化圈”的范围由小到大、内部联系日趋密切、认同感日益加强,具有历史意义的“早期中国”从酝酿至雏形到最终形成。可以说中原化不但在其发展的高峰期具有突出的核心地位,总体上也具有极其重要的历史地位。     

Foraging,Farming, and Social Complexity in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the Southern Levant: A Review and Synthesis

The transition from foraging to farming of the Neolithic periods is one of, if not, the most important cultural processes in recent human prehistory. Integrating previously published archaeological materials with archaeological research conducted since 1980, the first half of this essay synthesizes our current understanding of archaeological data for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period (ca. 11,700–ca. 8400 B.P.) of the southern Levant, generally defined as including southern Syria and Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Autonomous Authority, Jordan, and the Sinai peninsula of Egypt. The second half of the essay explores how these data inform archaeologists about the processes by which social differentiation emerged, the nature of regional and interregional connections, and the mechanisms and processes by which the transition from foraging to food production first occurred in the Neolithic.     

Architecture as material culture: Building form and materiality in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of Anatolia and Levant

Mudbrick technology and permanent architecture are Neolithic hallmarks but their origins are not well understood. By adopting a symmetrical approach to the examination of building materials, and contextualizing these materials within a cultural knowledge of resources and other concurrent social practices, this paper challenges environmentally determined approaches to explain the adoption of mudbrick technology during the PPNA in Anatolia, Upper Euphrates and the Levant. This research illustrates the weak correlation between architectural form and building material, suggesting that although nature provides resources, it is culture that dictates architectural form and material use. It is argued that the human-constructed environment became normalized throughout the PPNA and the social complexities of village life created a conceptual shift towards an artificial environment, supported by other changes in symbolic behavior. If building materials, such as mudbricks, were considered objects reflexive of human behavior, then we can access the complex and entangled relationship between people and things. Furthermore, the choice of building materials and their use in architecture can be considered codes of social practice and even ideology. As material culture, architecture becomes a metaphor for human engagement and symbolic communication.     

Modelling the effect of Mesolithic populations on the slowdown of the Neolithic transition

The expansion of the Neolithic transition in Europe took place gradually from the Near East across the whole continent. At Northern Europe, observations show a slowdown in the speed of the Neolithic front in comparison to other regions of the continent. It has been suggested that the presence of high population densities of hunter-gatherers at the North could have been the main cause for this slowdown. This proposal has recently been described by a mathematical model that takes into account: (i) the resistance opposed by the Mesolithic populations to the advance of Neolithic populations in their territory, and (ii) a limitation on the population growth dynamics due to the competition for space and resources. But these two effects are not equally responsible for the slowdown of the spread. Indeed, here we show that the limitation on the population growth dynamics seems to have been the main cause of the delay of the expansion of farming in Northern Europe.     

Functional analysis of stone grinding and polishing tools from the earliest Neolithic of north-western Europe

This reconstruction of grinding, pounding, hammering and abrading activities in the Early Neolithic of north-western Europe (Linearbandkeramik and Villeneuve-Saint-Germain cultures, 5100–4700 BC) is based on the study of 1289 sandstone tools from 17 sites located in the main Paris basin river valleys (Aisne, Eure, Marne, Oise, Seine, Yonne). An original method of functional identification was elaborated, relying on observation of use-wear with a stereoscopic microscope (under120×). Identification of traces of use relied on an experimental referential of 92 samples. These include (1) grinding cereals, (2) pounding temper, colourants and various plants, (3) shaping mineral, vegetal and animal objects by polishing (schist, limestones, bone, antler, wood), (4) softening skin. A significant observation concerns the use of small handstones for grain dehusking and larger handstones for grain grinding. Recycling is a widespread feature, with multipurpose handstones and frequent reuse of lower grinding tools for obtaining colourants. A change in the function of tools can also be observed between the Linearbandkeramik and the Villeneuve-Saint-Germain.     

Epipaleolithic/early Neolithic settlements at Qinghai Lake,western China

Transitions from terminal Pleistocene Upper Paleolithic foraging to Holocene Neolithic farming and pastoralist economic orientations in the northern Tibetan Plateau are examined from the perspective of Epipaleolithic sites located near Qinghai Lake, Qinghai Province, western China. Jiangxigou 2 is an artifact-rich, multicomponent midden site with the main period of occupation dating ca. 9000–5000 cal yr BP, containing abundant flaked stone artifacts including a substantial proportion of microlithic tools, abundant faunal remains including gazelle, deer, and sheep, and a small number of ceramics, including the oldest known on the Tibetan Plateau. Heimahe 3, on the other hand, is a brief hunter's camp dating ca. 8450 cal yr BP, with evident affinities to late Upper Paleolithic camps in the same region that date several thousand years older. The two distinctively different sites are probably nodes within a single Epipaleolithic foraging system that developed on the margins of the high Tibetan Plateau during the early Holocene, and that served as a basis for colonization of the high-altitude Plateau at that time. Jiangxigou 2 appears to be connected to early Neolithic agricultural settlements along the upper Yellow River (Huang He) drainage during the middle Holocene, and may provide insights into forager–agriculturalist interactions that lead to the development of pastoralist systems in the region.     

Early Neolithic Agriculture in the Iberian Peninsula

The spread of agriculture in the Iberian Peninsula is documented from at least ca. 5600–5500BC, although botanical data are absent or very limited for large areas. Archaeobotanical information shows from the beginning an imported agrarian system with a great diversity of crops: hulled and naked wheats and barleys, legumes such as pea, lentil, fava bean, vetches and grass peas, flax and poppy. This diversity of plants with different requirements, processing and uses, implies that the first farmers quickly imported or acquired a wide range of agrarian knowledge. Regional and inter-site agrarian differences are discussed in relation to factors like ecology, culture, use of the cultivated plants and management of the risk of crop failure. The adoption of farming resulted in significant ecological, economic, dietary, and social changes for the Neolithic people of Iberia.     

Sickle blade life-history and the transition to agriculture: an early Neolithic case study from Southwest Asia

In Southwest Asia, sickle blades first appear early in the sequence of the transition to agriculture. In the past, detailed qualitative research on silica bearing blade stone tools focus on the characterization of use-wear traces such as polish types and accrual rates. In this paper we approach the study of sickle blades slightly different, choosing to examine tool life-history by developing a method to quantitatively estimate harvesting intensity. The method centers on an experiment of cutting cereal stalks and measuring stone blade edge thickness under a scanning electron microscope as a proxy for cutting time. We end with regressing the experimental results to provide an estimation of how intensively archaeological sickle blades recovered from the site of Dhra’, Jordan were used for harvesting. The results, while preliminary, enable an initial interpretation of sickle blades as important tools with long use-life histories during the early Neolithic in the Southern Levant.     

Cultural Origins of the Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic: An Evaluation of the Evidence from the Dakhleh Oasis (South Central Egypt)

The debate surrounding the origins of the Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic has, over the past few decades, come to rest on the neighboring Saharan region as the most likely source of influence. Although there is some evidence for the appearance of domesticates in the Western Desert before food-producing communities emerged in Upper and Lower Egypt, there is a strong case for the introduction of Saharan artifacts and technologies to the Nile Valley communities. This paper examines this argument in relation to the Western Desert region of the Dakhleh Oasis (South Central Egypt). The intent of the paper is to recognize the role Dakhleh played in the cultural development of the Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic and whether this can clearly be seen through artifact parallels. Les parties débattant des origines de l'Egypte néolithique et pré-dynastique ont fini, au cours des dernières décennies, par conclure que la région voisine du Sahara était leur source d'influence la plus vraisemblable. Bien que certaines preuves existent de l'apparition de plantes et d'animaux domestiques dans le Désert occidental avant l'émergence de communautés produisant des aliments en Basse et Haute Egypte, de solides arguments émergent en faveur de l'introduction d'objets fabriqués et de technologies dans les communautés de la Vallée du Nil. L'exposé en question examine cet argument par rapport à la région du Désert occidental de l'Oasis de Dakhla (centre-sud de l'Egypte). Le but de cet exposé est de reconnaître le rôle de Dakhla dans le développement culturel de l'Egypte néolithique et pré-dynastique et de déterminer si oui ou non celui-ci peut clairement être identifié, de façon parallèle, au travers d'objets fabriqués.     

新石器时代中国玉器的区域特征

新石器时代我国辽河流域、黄河流域与长江流域三个地区的玉器,在材质、造型和纹饰方面表现出强烈的区域性特征:辽河流域的玉器多采用岫岩玉为原料,长江流域的玉器则多用透闪石一阳起石制成,而黄河流域多见绿松石制成的器物;辽河流域的玉器纹饰简单风格朴实,长江流域的玉器器形和纹饰都很特别,黄河流域则多生产工具且光素无纹.此外,玉器反映了新石器时代中晚期辽河流域内渔猎经济和宗教在社会中居于主导地位,长江流域中下游地区则可能进入了王权、军权和神权一体化的方国阶段,而世俗权力的独大在黄河流域普遍存在.世俗权力在这一地区社会政治生活中占据了主导地位.     

Neolithic cultures of the Ukraine and adjacent areas and their chronology

Considerable progress has been made in the study of the Ukrainian Neolithic within the last 30–40 years. Some 500 settlements and more than 20 cemeteries are now known and show many features in common with Neolithic cultures elsewhere in Europe. The Ukrainian Neolithic can be divided into two distinct zones: the food producers (both agriculturalists and animal husbandmen) occupied the forest-steppe on the right of the Dnieper and in the western regions of the Ukraine; the hunter-gatherer-fishers occupied areas to the north and east. The early Neolithic lasted from the end of the eighth to the beginning of the sixth millennium B.P., and the food-producing economies seem to have spread from the south and west. The middle Neolithic lasted until the first quarter of the fifth millennium B.P. and overlapped in time with some of the Aeneolithic cultures. The Neo-Aeneolithic period includes only the last three-quarters of the fifth millennium B.P.     

新郑唐户新石器时代遗址调查

新郑唐户新石器时代遗址的仰韶文化内涵丰富,依据采集的大量陶器的器物特征,可分为早、中、晚三期,这对于解决遗址性质、区分区域类型、排列文化谱系以及今后这一带新石器时代的考古发掘与研究,都具有重要的参考价值.众多文献记载,新郑是传说中的黄帝故里,该遗址的南部传为"黄帝口",其仰韶文化遗存又十分丰富,这可能与传说时代黄帝氏族的重要中心聚落有关.     

The Use of Animal Hair in Ceramic Manufacturing at the Tytkesken-2 Neolithic Site,Western Siberia

The comb pottery found at Tytkesken-2 horizons 7, 6, 4A, and 4 reveals traces of animal hair. Hair was used as armature at the shaping stage: it was wound around the body of the vessel to prevent cracking during baking and drying (pastes were prepared without the use of hair). As the Tytkesken-2 ceramics demonstrate, using hair as armature was a local tradition, practiced in some measure from the Early to the Final Neolithic period.     

河南地区新石器时代生业方式初探

本文通过梳理河南地区动植物考古研究成果,对新石器时代(距今10000年—4000年)河南地区豫北、郑洛和豫西南三个区域的生业方式进行了初步的综合研究和探讨。研究表明,新石器时代中期河南地区是以采集渔猎为主、种植农作物和饲养家畜为辅的生业模式,经过新石器时代晚期的过渡,发展为以种植农作物和饲养家畜为主、采集渔猎为辅的生业模式;新石器时代末期,农作物中新加入了大豆和小麦,家畜中新加入了黄牛和绵羊,多种农作物种植和家畜饲养方式逐渐形成。人类对动植物资源的掌控、文化和资源的交流是生业发展的主因,同时自然环境对生业起到了制约和促进两方面的影响。在古代社会发展与文明进步的进程中,生业起到了不可或缺的重要作用。     

Modelling the Neolithic transition in a heterogeneous environment

The Neolithic transition, involving the change of subsistence from foraging to agriculture, can fruitfully be modelled mathematically, as, e.g., in the three-population model of Aoki et al. (1996). Here that model is modified to include some features of population dynamics in a realistic, two-dimensional environment, and including population pressure, competition for resources between farmers and foragers, and the dependence of the population carrying capacities and diffusivities on the environmental conditions. This modified model allows for the survival of foragers in regions where environmental conditions do not favour farming. The model is tentatively applied to the Indian subcontinent, which is a complicated example of this transition involving multiple domestication centres. The results are briefly compared with published archaeological data.     

淮河下游新石器时代的绚丽画卷──龙虬庄遗址与江淮地区古文化学术座谈会专家发言纪要

江淮东部是介于海岱地区和太湖地区之间的一个重要的考古学文化区。自５０年代初在江淮东部发现淮安青莲岗遗址并由此提出青莲岗文化的命名以来,江淮地区的考古工作始终受到考古学界的高度关注。而高邮龙虬庄遗址被评为１９９３年中国十大考古新发现之后,在考古学界也产生了较大的影响。围绕龙虬庄遗址的考古发现,探讨江淮东部原始文化和青莲岗文化,以及淮河流域古文化,对于推动中国考古学研究向纵深发展,有着积极的意义。在高邮召开的龙虬庄遗址与江淮地区古文化的座谈会上,来自北京和苏鲁豫皖浙的专家各抒己见,本刊将座谈会上有代表性的专家的发言经整理后以纪要的形式刊出,旨在对江苏乃至淮河流域的考古工作起到积极的推动作用。