Polychromic structures and pigments in Guangyuan Thousand-Buddha Grotto of the Tang Dynasty (China)

This paper presents a multi-analytical study of the polychromy in the Guangyuan Thousand-Buddha Grotto. Samples taken from 15 locations in No. 512 and No. 689 caves are prepared as cross-sections for the analysis by optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy coupled with backscattered electron imaging (SEM-BSE). The cross section analysis indicates that some paintings were repainted in the past. The chemical composition of each painting layer is obtained by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX). The main pigments for 15 samples including green, red, blue, white and black paint layers, are identified by the combination of polarized light microscopy (PLM), Fourier Transform infrared spectrum (FT-IR), Raman spectroscopy (RS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The integrated analytical results reveal that the green pigments are malachite and atacamite; the red color is attributed to minium, hematite and cinnabar; the blue pigments are lazurite and organic blue materials; the white color is ascribed to anglesite and gypsum; and the black surface of polychrome is the accumulation of longtime smudging by folk burning incense in the devotional practice or the soot deposition resulting from burning bonfires in the caves. Some arsenic-containing pigment is detected in the green samples. This case study also demonstrates the advantages and the limitations of every analytical technique for the pigment identification, confirming the necessity of the integrated analytical techniques approach. The present results are not only useful to assist in the authenticity of the used pigment materials and history of the polychromic in the past, but also aimed at guiding the conservation scientists in taking into account materials and methods utilized in the past.     

From the stigmatized tattoo to the graffitied body: femininity in the tattoo renaissance

This article analyzes the spectacularly rising popularity of tattoos by showing that tattoos have become a spatial project in the largest sense: the way they participate in the creation of social space is different from that of tattoos before the Tattoo Renaissance. I explain this project as a shift from tattoos to body graffiti. In the past (predominantly male) tattoo-spheres could be located within the margins of society. Once an identity had been assumed through the adoption of a tattoo, the person could be assigned a particular geographical position within an urban sphere. Contemporary tattoos have this one-dimensional identifying function to a much lesser extent, which influences the way in which these tattoos create space. Within the new tattoo space, the skin does not wear the stigmatic mark, nor does it function as a screen of male desire, but it becomes a wall on which multiple desires are projected. In this sense, tattoos have become graffiti. I establish the particularity of the female tattoo as opposed to the masculine tattoo by focusing on an important element of the pro/contra discussion of female tattoos: the purity and ‘blankness’ of the female skin. Jean Baudrillard's concept of the blank female skin as a ‘void’ that men rush to fill with their own desires is central to this discussion. Finally, I show that the spatial function of narcissistically oriented female tattoos is at least partly established within the Suicide Girls interactive website.     

CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL ANALYSES OF GALLO-ROMAN WALL PAINTING FROM DIETIKON,SWITZERLAND

Around 90 samples of Roman wall painting dating from the first to the third century AD were analysed using different analytical techniques: X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, infrared spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectrometry, optical microscopy and physico-chemical tests. The identified pigments are: ash, calcite, carbon black, celadonite, cinnabar, Egyptian Blue, glauconite, goethite, hematite and red lead. Pigment mixtures were used to get other colours such as brown, pink or purple. Three types of plaster were used: a first, and most dominant, with river sand, a second with crushed tile for damp places and a third, to which cinnabar was exclusively applied, was prepared with crushed calcite crystals.     

三种凝胶材料清洁烟熏壁画的模拟试验及效果评估

烟熏污染是古代壁画的主要病害之一,严重影响其艺术价值和视觉效果。针对石窟和殿堂壁画的烟熏病害,高仿真制作了轻度、中度和重度烟熏试块,采用卡波姆凝胶、琼脂凝胶和结冷胶开展烟熏清洁实验,并利用显微镜观察、剖面分析和红外光谱(FTIR)分析烟熏污渍形态、胶结状态及评估清洁效果。结果表明,三种凝胶材料对轻度和中度烟熏试块的清洁效果较好;并能不同程度地减轻重度烟熏,使黑褐色污染变为浅灰色,其中卡波姆凝胶清洁效果为佳。便携式显微镜观察清洁界面可见,未清洁区密集分布着黑褐色污渍颗粒,清洁区污渍颗粒大幅减少;相较而言,无涂层壁画经清洁后亦有少量污渍颗粒与颜料颗粒交替相间分布,而涂层壁画清洁后除重度烟熏试块表面有少数褐色小泡状结构外,其余均无污渍,清洁后可完全再现颜料本色,壁画亮度明显提升。清洁区经FTIR检测,表面无凝胶残留。然而,清洁效果受壁画有无涂层、老化程度、并发脆弱性病害、烟熏或灼烧程度、污渍与壁画颜料结合程度以及导致烟熏的燃料介质差异等多种耦合因素共同影响。当前凝胶清洁仅适宜于涂层壁画烟熏和无涂层壁画非重度烟熏的清洁。本研究为壁画烟熏病害的清洁提供了参考和借鉴。     

草酸钙晶体形态在中国传统手工纸纤维鉴别中的应用

纤维鉴别是纸质文物、古籍与档案保护中必要的基础工作,对于修复方案的制定、修复材料的选择等具有重要的指导意义。草酸钙晶体是植物中普遍存在的一种后含物,其形态与植物种群具有密切关系。本工作以具有代表性的传统手工纸为研究样品,综合使用衰减全反射傅里叶变换红外光谱法、X射线衍射法、扫描电子显微镜、光学显微镜和偏光显微镜观察等多种仪器分析手段,系统研究各类纸纤维中草酸钙晶体的形态特征,进而探讨草酸钙晶体形态在中国传统手工纸纤维鉴别中的应用价值,以进一步完善现有纤维鉴别方法体系。     

Hyaline tissue of thermally unaltered conodont elements and the enamel of vertebrates

Comparison of the ultrastructure of the hyaline tissue of conodont elements and the enamel of vertebrates provides little support for a close phylogenetic relationship between conodonts and vertebrates. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy shows that the mineralised component of the hyaline tissue of Panderodus and of Cordylodus elements consists of large, flat, oblong crystals, arranged in layers that run parallel to the long axis of the conodont. Enamel in the dentition of a living vertebrate, the lungfish Neoceratodus forsteri, has crystals of calcium hydroxyapatite, arranged in layers, and extending in groups from the dentine-enamel junction; the crystals are slender, elongate spicules perpendicular to the surface of the tooth plate. Similar crystal arrangements to those of lungfish are found in other vertebrates, but none resembles the organisation of the hyaline tissue of conodont elements. The crystals of hydroxyapatite in conodont hyaline tissue are exceptionally large, perpendicular or parallel to the surface of the element, with no trace of prisms, unlike the protoprismatic radial crystallite enamel of fish teeth and scales, or the highly organised prismatic enamel of mammals.     

THE STUCCO TECHNIQUE OF THE MAGISTRI COMACINI: THE CASE STUDY OF SANTA MARIA DEI GHIRLI IN CAMPIONE D'ITALIA (COMO,ITALY)

This paper is aimed at defining the artistic technique performed by the outstanding artist Isidoro Bianchi for the Baroque stucco decorations in the church of Santa Maria dei Ghirli (Campione d'Italia, Italy). Samples of stucco were examined by means of optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with a microprobe, X‐ray powder diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and laser ablation mass spectrometry equipped with plasma source spectrometry. On the basis of the results obtained, art historians have made new hypotheses on the biography of the artist and on the historical location of his birthplace.     

甘肃张家川马家塬战国墓地M4出土料珠研究

甘肃马家塬墓地是战国晚期至秦初的西戎墓地,本研究以该墓地M4出土的料珠为研究对象,以期通过分析其成分和结构特征,讨论其工艺特征,以丰富对战国时期费昂斯的相关认识。研究使用扫描电子显微镜-能谱和激光拉曼光谱仪,分析结果显示料珠为费昂斯制品,其釉层玻璃化程度很高,经历腐蚀后熔剂流失严重,明显区别于西周时期的费昂斯制品。同时确定釉层中的一些高锡颗粒物为SnO_2,表明当时在釉层制作中加入锡石或锡粉末。该费昂斯制品应采取了直接施釉或包埋施釉工艺。研究结果可为我国费昂斯发展历程演变提供信息。     

Pigments and Plasters Discovered in the House of Diana (Cosa,Grosseto, Italy): An Integrated Study Between Art History,Archaeology and Scientific Analyses*

The pigments and the plasters of the Roman frescoes discovered at the House of Diana (Cosa, Grosseto, Italy) were analysed using non‐destructive and destructive mineralogical and chemical techniques. The characterization of both pigments and plasters was performed through optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and electron microprobe analysis. The pigments were identified by Raman spectroscopy and submitted to stable isotope analysis. The results were integrated with the archaeological data in order to determine and reconstruct the provenance, trade patterns and the employment of the raw materials used for the elaboration of the frescoes.     

A MULTI‐ANALYTICAL APPROACH FOR THE CHARACTERIZATION OF COMMODITIES IN A CERAMIC JAR FROM ANTINOE (EGYPT)*

This paper describes a multi‐analytical chemical study performed on the original, almost totally conserved, content of a small ceramic jar from the Antinoe archaeological site (fifth to seventh centuries ad, Roman Egypt) and now belonging to the archaeological collection of the Istituto Papirologico ‘Girolamo Vitelli’ (Florence, Italy). Scanning electron microscopy with an energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometer (SEM–EDX), Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD) were all used to characterize the inorganic components of the archaeological material. The organic substances were analysed using FTIR, direct exposure mass spectrometry (DE–MS) and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The inorganic component essentially consisted of halite (NaCl). Among the NaCl crystals, lamellar elements were identified. They were chemically characterized by carbonato‐apatite and showed a concentric morphology typical of the scales of small fish. The most prevalent organic constituents of the sample were monocarboxylic acids, α,ω‐dicarboxylic acids, and cholesterol and its oxidation products. The organic material composition was consistent with the occurrence of lipids of animal origin. In addition, diterpenes related to pine pitch were also identified. The overall results suggest that the material recovered in the small ceramic jar found in Antinoe is a residue of fish‐based pickles such as garum, muria, allex and liquamen, which were commonly used in Roman times.     

NEW EVIDENCE FOR THE NATURE OF THE ATTIC BLACK GLOSS

New evidence is reported here using transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and laser reflectance for the nature of the black glossy decoration layer present on the Attic black or red figure vases of the sixth to fourth century BC. The black layer, of total thickness about 20 μm, consists mainly of poly crystalline magnetite (Fe₃O₄) particles of dimensions from 0.2 μm down to extremely fine sizes embodied in an amorphous vitreous matrix. On the outer surface of the black paint we discovered for the first time a thin clear glassy film of approximate thickness 0.1 μm which is rich in Al and Fe and poor in Si. This film must be responsible for the characteristic sheen of the surface. This is verified with the reflection of laser light mostly in specular direction, a unique property compared with black paints of other areas and other periods.     

Root Canals of Buried Teeth: Radiographic Changes due to Crystal Growth

The radiographs of 43 skulls recovered from a 4000-year-old site in Central Thailand were examined for changes in the pulp chamber and root canals of teeth. Eleven specimens aged between 8 and 40 years featured marked root canal radiopacities not consistent with the appearance of dentine. Scanning electron microscopy and electron microprobe analysis revealed the presence of crystals of almost pure calcium. The crystals had developed post-mortem, with the likely source of the mineral being sea shells which were abundant at the place of burial. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

New radiological insights into the life and death of the Tyrolean Iceman

The radiological examinations carried out on the Tyrolean Iceman (5300 B.P.) in Bolzano between 2001 and 2006 have undergone a new, systematic re-appraisal, during which new findings have been added to those already known beforehand. Until now, it has been assumed that the Iceman’s stomach was empty (due to the fact that this organ could not be localised), the colon contents constituting the Iceman’s last meal. During this re-appraisal, however, the stomach could not only be exactly identified, but was also found to be well-filled, shedding new light on the scenario leading to his violent death. In addition, several other novel aspects were observed: three gallbladder stones were found which, in combination with the previously identified atherosclerosis, indicate that the Iceman’s diet may have been richer in animal products than previous studies have suggested. The signs of enthesopathy in the knees indicate that he spent many hours wandering in the mountains. Several radio-opaque objects superficially embedded within the soft tissue were identified as being of taphonomic origin. The right humerus was found to be postmortally fractured.     

RESEARCH ON THE PIGMENTS FROM PAINTED CERAMICS EXCAVATED FROM THE YANGQIAOPAN TOMBS OF THE LATE HAN DYNASTY (48 BC – AD 25)

The analysis of pigments on painted ceramics excavated from the Yangqiaopan Tombs of the late Western Han Dynasty was undertaken using optical microscopy (OM), micro‐Raman spectroscopy (μ‐RS), scanning electron microscopy with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS), X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy spectra (FTIR). The pigments were identified as red lead (Pb₃O₄), carbon (C), malachite [Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂], Chinese purple (BaCuSi₂O₆) and illite {[K,H₃O]Al₂Si₃AlO₁₀(OH)₂}. Fibrous materials were observed in some pigment samples. When observed by SEM, one showed a large amount of fibre in solidified gum, which indicated that gum of ramie could have been used as the binding medium to make the pigment particles adhere together. These results provide significant insights into the characteristics of these pigments in the Qin and Han Dynasties.     

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RAW MATERIALS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF CHINESE PORCELAIN AND STONEWARE BODIES AND THE RESULTING MICROSTRUCTURES*

The microstructures of porcelain and stoneware bodies from north and south China, spanning the period from the Tang to the Ming dynasty (7th–17th centuries ad ), were examined in polished sections in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) after etching the sections with hydrofluoric acid (HF). Mullite, present as fine, mainly elongated crystals, is the dominant crystalline phase observed. The bulk chemical compositions of the bodies are determined by energy‐dispersive spectrometry in the SEM, and the relative amounts of mullite and quartz present in the different ceramics are estimated from X‐ray diffraction measurements. Mullite formed from areas of kaolinitic clay, mica particles and feldspar particles is distinguished through a combination of the arrangement of the mullite crystals, and the associated SiO₂/Al₂O₃ wt% concentration ratios. It is shown that very different microstructures are observed in ceramic bodies produced using kaolinitic clay from north China (Ding porcelain and Jun stoneware), porcelain stone from south China (qingbai and underglaze blue porcelain and Longquan stoneware), and stoneware clays from south China (Yue and Guan stonewares). Therefore, SEM examination of HF‐etched, polished sections of the bodies of high‐refractory ceramics has considerable potential for investigating the raw materials used in their production.     

四川博物院藏战国铜编钟饰金工艺的科学分析

为研究战国铜编钟饰金工艺,利用光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜和X射线无损检测系统等分析仪器,对四川博物院藏战国铜编钟表面饰金纹饰的形态结构、成分和工艺特征等进行科学分析。形态特征显示:编钟表面有开槽,金丝填充于凹槽内,金丝表面存在明显间隙,部分金丝可见涂抹痕迹和边缘流挂痕迹,纹饰附近的基体上有金色颗粒残留。金丝表面未发现捶打或剪裁等加工痕迹,表明编钟装饰的金丝与传统错金工艺使用的金丝存在明显差异。金丝的成分分析结果显示:Au含量大于91.6%,Ag含量为1.0%~4.0%,Hg含量为0.5%~6.0%,且剖面可见大量孔隙结构。从金丝的形态特征和成分推测编钟采用了凹槽鎏金工艺进行装饰,开槽的目的是为了提高鎏金的附着力。此项工作不仅可为开展巴蜀地区青铜装饰工艺研究提供珍贵的数据支撑,也可为我国古代青铜装饰技法研究提供重要的实物资料。     

Loyalist Tattoos and Tattooed Generals in the Song Dynasty

According to Yue Fei’s biography, when the legendary general was slandered and interrogated for treason, he tore the shirt off his body, exposing four characters tattooed on his back: “Exhaust one’s loyalty in service of the state.” This study looks at two components of the Yue Fei story—patriotic tattoos, and tattooed generals—and examines their meaning in the broader stretch of Song dynasty history. Yue Fei was not the Song dynasty’s only tattooed general who came to a tragic end. The Northern Song’s Di Qing was a tattooed soldier whose military merit allowed him to rise to the highest levels of power in the empire. Di Qing’s story makes it clear that tattooed generals were objects of suspicion and ridicule at court due to their military tattoos, a trait that linked them to the criminals and lower class men that manned the Song armies. Though military tattoos sometimes had a loyalist ring to them, they were carried out on a mass scale, and were a characteristic of coercion rather than fervent loyalism. This study shows that underneath the nationalist historical narrative of the Song dynasty, of which Yue Fei is a famous example, there lies a different story of social conflict within the Song state. Rather than a story of Chinese fighting non-Chinese and of traitorous and cowardly officials struggling with loyal patriots, this study offers a narrative of a social conflict between high-born clear-skinned officials and low-born tattooed military men.     

THE EMIGRATION OF PREALPINE LAKE MASTERS: A STUDY OF A 17TH‐CENTURY MANTELPIECE ATTRIBUTED TO THE CARLONE FAMILY OF ROVIO (TICINO,SWITZERLAND)*

This work illustrates the possible connections between the phenomenon of the seasonal emigration of lake masters and the production of artistic artefacts. Within the ambit of these dynamics, a stucco mantelpiece was taken into consideration. Nothing was known about the object: neither its origin, nor the artist who produced it, nor the period of execution. Historical, stylistic and formal analyses of the materials and of the technique with which the work was executed allow us to verify that the mantelpiece was produced using the stucco technique in the 17th century, in Rovio (southern Switzerland, Ticino), and that it comes from one of the exponents of the Carlone workshop, whose representatives were important in the tradition of itinerant artistic workers. Due to their good technical and professional specialization, the Carlone workshop served both public and private buyers. Tommaso Carlone is the principal representative artist of the Carlone workshop; it is certain that his workshop produced the stucco mantelpiece. The migrations of the artists were seasonal and they maintained a close bond with their country of origin. When they returned to the country of origin, they produced works of great artistic value, of which the mantelpiece represents a splendid example. Through the employment of conventional analytical techniques (optical and electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy and porosity measurements), it has been possible to study the technique with which the work was executed, the materials used and the decay. The mantelpiece was produced using the stucco technique by means of a body layer (slaked lime and silicate and carbonate aggregates) and a marmorino finishing layer (slaked lime and pointed calcite crystals). Above this layer, whose thickness varies in relation to the executed result, there is a thin lime plaster whitewash, pigmented with the dispersion of yellow ochre particles; chromatic alterations are an oxalate patina caused by firm adhesion to the marmorino layer, due to the denaturation of the proteic substances employed. The final treatment was made with beeswax, which increased the marmoreal effect. Several additional layers of lime plaster whitewash have also been applied over the centuries. The figurative central square of the plastic decoration was made using red ochre.     

Microstructures of Building Materials from Huaca De La Luna,Peru

ABSTRACT

The microstructures of building materials from the archaeological complex of Huaca de la Luna on the northern coast of Peru is assessed for the first time by a multiscale approach. The multiscale microstructural characterization used laboratory techniques including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray microtomography, and both gas and powder pycnometry. Optical microscopy revealed the presence of organic matter and shell fragments and X-ray microtomography showed differences in the sizes and connectivity of pores. The BET (N₂ gas adsorption) specific surface areas showed greater presence of clayey matrix in the mortars. No significant differences among mortars and brick fragments mineralogy were detected by X-ray diffraction, so the larger amount of fine binding matrix in the mortars suggests that they were produced blending raw material with different grain sizes. The aim of this study is to provide data that can be used for a better understanding of the Moche culture, its construction techniques, and to support conservation strategies of the archaeological heritage.